COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 
STATE    OF  MATTER 


THE    COLLOIDAL  AND 
GRYSTALLOIDAL 
STATE   OF  MATTER 

BY 

Dr.    PAUL    BORLAND 

A.O.    PROFESSOR   AT    THE    TECHNISCHE   HOCHSCHULE,   STUTTGART 

Translated  by  W.  J.  BRITLAND  and  H.  E.  POTTS,   M.Sc. 


She  is  the  unique  artificer,  from  the  simplest 
substances  to  the  greatest  contrasts,  without 
appearance  of  exertion  to  the  greatest  per- 
fection ;  to  the  most  accurate  precision,  ever 
suffused  ivith  somewhat  of  delicacy. 

— GOETHE  ("  Nature  ") 


NEW    YORK 

D.     V$N     NOSTRAND     CO. 
TWENTY-FIVE     PARK     PLACE 


1914 


PREFACE 

IN  the  last  decade  the  colloidal  state  of  matter,  or, 
in  other  words,  substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  (in 
contradistinction  to  those  in  the  amorphous  or 
crystalloidal)  have  come  to  the  front  technically  and 
scientifically. 

This  region  of  work  covers  a  very  wide  field, 
inorganic  and  organic  chemistry,  physics  and  physio- 
logy ;  in  all  these  branches  knowledge  of  this  kind 
has  proved  fruitful,  and  will  do  so  still  more. 

But  the  scope  of  this  field  must  be  extended  still 
further  ;  technology  and  agriculture,  mineralogy  and 
geology  feel  its  effects  ;  and  since  spontaneous  gene- 
ration must  presumably  be  sought  in  the  colloidal 
state,  modern  natural  philosophy  cannot  pass  over 
this  line  of  division  between  the  monistic  and  dualistic 
conceptions  of  the  universe  without  taking  up  a  firm 
position  here. 

So  this  subject  concerns  everyone  who  is  not 
opposed  to,  or  ignorant  of,  modern  natural  science, 
whether  he  is  a  technologist,  industrialist,  chemist, 
physicist,  forestry  worker,  practical  doctor,  physio- 
logist or  natural  philosopher;  it  will  lead  to  work 
yielding  splendid  fruit,  and  perhaps  to  the  latent 
secrets  of  nature  still  to  be  disclosed.  This  pamphlet 
is  written  for  general  orientation  in  this  field. 

PAUL  ROHLAND. 

330341 


THE  COLLOIDAL  AND  CRYSTAL- 
LOIDAL  STATE  OF  MATTER 


THE    significance  in    nature,    as   in   technology  and  History  of 
agriculture,    of   colloidal    substances,    or    better,    sub-  Colloids. 
stances  in  the  colloidal  state,  has  first  been  made   clear 
during  the  last  ten  years. 

Substances  in  the  colloidal  state  were  certainly 
employed  in  the  earlier  stages  of  human  culture,  e.g., 
as  adhesives ;  it  is  now  known  that  the  old  Egyptians 
used  substances  such  as  starch  and  dextrin  in  the  dyeing 
of  materials,  and  the  Chinese  allowed  their  clays  and 
•orcelains  to  decompose,  to  increase  the  colloidal  sub- 
stances in  them  and  to  raise  the  degree  of  plasticity. 

But  till  the  time  mentioned  the  interest  of  scientists 
was  essentially  confined  to  the  substances  which 
attracted  attention  by  their  colourless  or  splendidly 
coloured  crystal  forms,  and  by  their  energy  of  crystal- 
lisation were  easily  susceptible  to  research. 

In  this  connection  it  must.be  remembered  that  since 

Lavoisier  and  the  commencement  of  scientific  chemistry 

lore  than  a  century  ago,  much  greater  difficulties  have 

•isen  and  still  remain  in  the  investigation  of  substances 

a  the  colloidal  state  than  in  crystalloidal  bodies. 

And   yet  it  must  be  recognised  that  matter  in  the 
olloidal  state  plays  a  much  greater  part  in  nature,  and 
logically  also  in  technology,   than   has  hitherto    been 
ascribed  to  it. 

In  Germany,  during  the  peaceful  years  of  the  sixties 
of  the  last  century,  the  single  branches  of  the  so-called 
mental  sciences  were  pursued  to  fall  development ;  in 

C.M.  B 


COLLOIDAL   AND   CBYSTALLOIDAL 

England,  '  on     the     contrary,    the     natural     sciences 


'  "185!)  'I/ai'WhY  published  his  fundamental  work  on 
the  Origin  of  Species  ;  in  1856  Per'kin  prepared  the 
first  aniline  dye  from  tar,  mauveine,  a  beautifully 
coloured  substance  in  the  crystalloidal  state. 

At  that  time  men  began  to  occupy  themselves 
scientifically  with  substances  in  the  colloidal  state. 

Thomas  Graham,  in  the  years  1861  to  1864, 
was  the  discoverer  of  the  characteristic  properties  of 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state  in  silicic  acid,  an 
inorganic  colloid  ;  he  added  hydrochloric  acid  to  a 
solution  of  sodium  silicate  contained  in  a  dialyser  (a 
vessel  enclosed  by  vegetable  parchment  paper),  and 
observed  that  the  crystalloidal  salt,  formed  by  the 
decomposition  of  these  substances,  diffused  through  the 
membrane  into  the  vessel  beneath  filled  with  pure 
water,  but  the  silicic  acid,  separated  in  the  colloidal 
state,  did  not  possess  this  property.  The  process  of 
dialysis  was  discovered.1 

With  the  assistance  of  an  idea  borrowed  from 
mechanics  an  explanation  is  easily  found  for  this 
phenomenon  ;  in  the  light  of  the  molecular,  and  further 
of  the  ionic  hypothesis,  it  is  easy  for  the  molecules 
and  ions  of  the  sodium  chloride  to  diffuse  through  the 
membrane,  while  the  larger  colloidal  molecules  of  the 
silicic  acid  are  held  back. 

Graham  2  quite  correctly  distinguished  between  the 
crystalloidal  and  colloidal  state  of  matter  ;  it  was 

later  in  chemical  text-books  and  handbooks  that  this 
conception  suffered  displacement,  in  that  the  line  of 
distinction  was  drawn  between  crystalloidal  and 
colloidal  substances. 

List  of  This  classification  must  now  be   considered  invalid, 

Colloids.     since    for   eacll    substance    b0th   the    crystalloidal  and 

colloidal  state  is   assumed.     A  very  large  number  of 

1  Dialysis  was  already  known   two  years  earlier,  but  not  in  this 
definite  scientific  manner. 

2  Liebig's  Ann.  121,  1,  18G2. 


STATE   OF  MATTER 

inorganic  bodies,  which  were  hitherto  known  only  in 
the  crystalloidal  state,  have  already  heen  prepared  in 
the  colloidal,  e.g.,  almost  all  metals  and  metalloids ;  of 
the  latter,  perhaps  only  red  phosphorus  and  iodine 
are  lacking. 

To  these  must  be  added  their  simplest  compounds, 
the  oxides,  sulphides,  and  chlorides.  Also  different 
carbonates,  chromates,  phosphates  and  sulphates  have 
been  obtained  in  the  colloidal  state  ;  further,  dyes, 
such  as  indigo  and  benzopurpurin,  and  organic  sub- 
stances, such  as  caramel  and  glycogen.  All  these 
bodies  are  known  both  in  the  crystalloidal  and  colloidal 
state. 

Even  substances  which  were  hitherto  assumed  to 
possess  a  marked  crystalloidal  character,  as  heavy  spar, 
barium  carbonate,1  gypsum,2  common  salt  and  sylvine, 
can  be  transformed  into  the  colloidal  state. 

Further,  gelatinous  gypsum  is  obtained  by  the 
addition  of  alcohol  to  natural  or  artificial  sea-water; 
zoologists  may  decide  whether  this  colloidal  gypsum  is 
identical,  as  Mobius  has  observed,  with  the  Bathybius 
Ilacckelii  (E.  Haeckel,  "  Natural  History  of  Creation  "), 
the  primitive  slime-life  of  the  greatest  sea-depths,  which 
inhabits  these  depths  in  the  form  of  naked  clumps  of 
protoplasm  and  slime-nets. 

Another  series  of  substances  is  as  yet  known  almost 
wholly  in  the  colloidal  state ;  the  most  important 
organic  substances,  such  as  the  proteins,  belong  to  this 
class. 

Inorganic  substances  of  this  kind  are  the  hydroxides 
of  many  metals  and  metalloids,  also  dyes,  such  as 
molybdenum  blue,  purple  of  Cassius,  Prussian  blue  and 
copper  ferrocyanide. 

The  most  important  organic  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state  are  starch,  dextrin,  inulin,  tragacanth, 
tannin,  the  latex  of  Castilloa  plastica,  catechu,  gum, 
rubber,  sumach  ;  also,  of  great  importance,  glue  and 

1  Zt.  f.  Chem.  u.  Tnd.  der  Roll.  1,  166,  1906. 

2  P.  Rohland,  Zt,  fiir  Anorganische  Chemie,  65,  206,  1910.     (The 
Hydrosulpbates  and  Sulphates  of  Barium  and  Calcium.) 

B    2 


4  COLLOIDAL  AND  CRYSTALLOIDAL 

gelatine,  derived  from  mammals  (gluten),  from  fishes 
(Ichthyocolla,  isinglass),  and  from  plants  (agar-agar) ; 
caseins  and  albumins  (ovalbumin,  serumalbumin, 
haemoglobin)  ;  finally,  invertin,  emulsin,  trypsin 
(enzymes),  bacteria-jellies,  and  cell-protoplasm  belong 
to  this  class. 

Chrono-  Concerning  the  chronological  order  in  which  different 
logical  substances  have  been  obtained  in  these  states,  the  sub- 
stances of  more  simple  structure,  such  as  common 
salt,  gypsum,  lead  chloride,  were  first  known  in  the 
cry  stall  oidal  state,  and  have  been  prepared  in  the 
collodial  state  more  recently.  Exactly  the  reverse 
holds  for  the  substances  of  more  complicated  structure, 
such  as  starch,  gelatine,  albumin,  etc. 

These  were  first  known  in  the  colloidal  state,  and 
only  quite  recently  have  they  been  obtained  crystal- 
line, e.g.,  white  of  egg.  Also  in  the  protein  of  the 
turkey-hen's  egg  an  albumin  has  been  found  which 
is  crystalline,  and  which  answers  to  the  formula 
Q&sHt&NjgiOggSs,  and  is  probably  isomeric  with  the 
crystalline  egg  albumin.1 

It  is  now  fairly  certain  that  the  transformation  of 
probably  almost  all  substances  from  the  crystalloidal  to 
the  colloidal  state  can  be  effected,  yet  the  reverse 
problem,  the  preparation  in  the  crystalloidal .  state  of 
substances  previously  only  known  in  the  colloidal,  has 
been  hitherto  little  attacked. 

A  very  large  part  of  the  class  of  substances  here 
named  colloids  occurs  in  nature ;  in  the  inorganic  king- 
dom, at  all  events  at  the  present  time,  the  crystalloid 
form  preponderates ;  in  an  earlier  epoch  colloidal  forms 
very  probably  predominated.  In  the  organic  kingdom 
will  be  found  the  chief  representatives  of  substances 
in  the  colloidal  state,  the  starch  and  albumins  of 
plants. 

Formation      The  sun  throws  down  heat  on  the  green-foliaged  roof 

in  Nature8  °^  ^e    beech-wood ;    the    air    shimmers    and    glitters 

'  almost   in   silence   between    the   branches  ;    only   the 

1  Journ  liuss.  Phys.  Chem.  Ges.  38,  597,  1906. 


STATE   OF  MATTER 

whirring  flight  of  insects  vibrates  through  the  heated 
atmosphere.  Behind  this  network  of  wood  a  great 
and  mysterious  process  is  heing  consummated.  The 
green  leaves  of  the  beeches  do  not  lie  in  dreaming  rest, 
mysterious  forces  are  borne  to  them  in  the  quivering 
sunlight ;  a  stream  of  air  which  carries  carbonic  acid 
gas  rustles  steadily  across  them  and  into  them  by 
their  decomposing  action. 

In  the  leaves  occurs  the  decomposition  of  carbon- 
dioxide  into  its  component  substances  carbon  and 
oxygen  ;  the  two  elements  are  torn  apart  by  the  trans- 
versally  oscillatory  ether  waves  and  the  chlorophyll 
particles  in  the  single  cells  of  the  leaves  themselves. 
A  wonderful  manufactory  is  established  in  the  leaves, 
which  in  a  way  yet  unknown  conducts  this  separation 
by  means  of  radiant  energy  and  chlorophyll,  returns  the 
free  oxygen  to  the  air,  and  works  up  the  carbon  to 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  especially  to  starch. 

Now  the  heat  of  combustion  of  starch  to  carbon- 
dioxide  and  water  amounts  to  4,123  calories  per 
gramme;  therefore,  according  to  the  first  law  of  Thermo- 
dynamics, tV"  same  amount  of  energy  is  necessary  to 
form  starch  from  carbon-dioxide  and  water.  Since 
the  reduction  of  carbonic  acid  gas  only  occurs  in 
sunlight,  this  radiant  energy  is  furnished  by  the 
sun. 

Will  man  succeed  some  day  in  imitating  this  process, 
in  discovering  these  wonderful  energies,  partly  electronic 
and  partly  chemical,  and  in  utilising  them  for  his  own 
purposes  ?  Who  can  say  to-day  ? 

These  processes  in  the  green  leaves  consist  of  several 
stages  ;  in  one  the  carbon-dioxide  is  reduced  to 
carbon ;  in  another  carbon  and  water  combine  to  form 
carbohydrates,  starch,  etc.,  with  simultaneous  evolu- 
tion of  oxygen  ;  and  in  a  third  these  combine,  probably 
in  the  sieve-tubes,  with  oxygen  and  nitrogen  com- 
pounds already  formed  or  taken  up  from  outside, 
together  with  sulphur  and  phosphorus  compounds, 
in  a  many-kinded  synthesis  to  a  further  substance 
in  the  colloidal  state,  plant  protein.  From  there 


6  COLLOIDAL  AND   CEYSTALLOIDAL 

outwards  the  protein  wanders  into  the  animal  kingdom 
into  animal  bodies,  in  which  are  contained  substances  in 
the  colloidal  state  constituted  in  the  most  varied  forms, 
such  as  albumin,  casein,  etc. 

Distinc-  Beyond  their  behaviour  in  the  dialyser,  substances  in 
tions  the  colloidal  state  exhibit  the  following  distinctions 
Colloids  ^rom  C17sfcalloids ;  these  differences  occur  especially  in 

and  Solution. 

Crystal-  Dissolved  colloids  possess  a  much  smaller  energy  of 
diffusion  than  crystalloids  ;  their  velocity  of  diffusion 
'iffusion.  m^0  0£}ier  liquids  is  much  less  than  that  of  crystalloids  ; 
thus,  according  to  Graham,  the  diffusion  of  crystalloidal 
sodium  chloride  is  2'33,  while  that  of  colloidal  protein 
is  49. 

Osmotic  In  consequence  of  their  lack  of  capacity  to  diffuse 
Pressure,  through  vegetable  or  animal  membranes,  dissolved 
colloids  possess  a  much  smaller  osmotic  pressure  than 
crystalloids  ;  according  to  Pfeffer  the  osmotic  pressure 
of  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  sugar  is  51*8  cm.  mercury, 
while  that  of  a  1  per  cent,  gum  solution  is  only  6'9  cm. 
mercury,  a  1  per  cent,  dextrose  solution  only  16*6  cm. 
mercury. 

Freezing-       Further,    while    with    crystalloidal    substances    the 
point  and   freezing -point   falls    proportionately    to    the    quantity 
poin"g      added,  with  dissociated    substances    about    double  the 
amount,  this  lowering  of  freezing-point  is  quite  minimal 
for  substances  in  the  colloidal  state ;   e.g.,  44  gms.  of 
protein  dissolved  in  100  gms.  of  water  caused  a  lower- 
ing of  the  freezing-point  of  only  O'OGO0.1     The  same 
holds  for  the  raising  of  the  boiling-point.      Colloidal 
solutions,  e.g.,  very  concentrated  soap  solutions,  have  the 
same  boiling-point  as  pure   water ;    with    crystalloidal 
dissolved    substances    the    boiling-point   rises    propor- 
tionately  to    the   quantity  added.      Further,   colloidal 
solutions  cannot  be  distilled  without  decomposition. 
Molecular       To   explain   this   behaviour   an    enormously   greater 
Weight,     molecule,  and  a  correspondingly  great  molecular  weight, 
has  been  assumed  for  substances  in  the  colloidal  state ; 

1  Zt.  f.  Phys.  Chem.  9,  88  (1892). 


STATE   OF   MATTER  7 

for  silicic  acid  about  50,000,  for  starch  about  25,000, 
while  this  figure  for  a  crystalloidal  substance  like 
sodium  chloride  is  58*5.  From  the  relatively  simpler 
constituted  molecule  of  tungstic  acid  to  albumin 
there  is  an  increasing  complication  in  molecular  struc- 
ture ;  the  molecular  weights  themselves,  as  far  as 
present  measurements  go,  are  assumed  to  increase 
from  1,000  to  50,000. 

Corresponding  to  the  simple  functions  exerted  in  the 
economy  of  nature  by  common  salt,  for  example,  its 
molecule  is  simply  constituted,  its  molecular  weight 
relatively  low ;  the  state  in  which  it  almost  always 
occurs  is  the  crystalloidal,  its  crystalline  form  is  the 
simplest  possible,  the  regular. 

It  has  been  prepared  recently  for  the  first  time  in  the 
colloidal  state,1  though  it  may  be  noted  that  it  frequently 
exists  in  the  animal  organism  in  this  state. 

Corresponding  to  the  complicated  functions  possessed 
by  substances  such  as  glycogen,  casein,  albumin, 
their  molecules  are  constituted  in  the  most  varied  and 
complicated  manner,  their  molecular  weights  are  so 
high  that  they  can  only  approximately  be  estimated, 
the  state  in  which  they  occur  is  the  colloidal,  very 
rarely  the  crystalloidal. 

There  is,  however,  the  possibility  that  simply  con- 
stituted substances  such  as  common  salt,  lead  chloride, 
mercurous  chloride,  gypsum,  which  in  the  crystalloidal 
form  possess  a  small  molecular  weight,  may  possess  in 
the  colloidal  form  a  large  molecular  weight,  such  as 
has  already  been  assumed  for  silicic  acid,  ferric 
hydroxide,  etc. 

An  interesting  insight  might  be  thus  obtained  into 
the  constitution  of  these  substances,  which  in  this  form 
is  perhaps  more  complicated  than  has  been  hitherto 
assumed. 

Further,  colloids  are  characterised  by  their  capacity  Optical 
for    scattering    and    polarising    a   beam    of  light,    e.g.,  behaviour. 

i  Berichtc.  d.  Dcutscb.  Chcm.  Gcs.  38, 597, 1906.  C.  Paal  (Colloidal 
sodium  chloride). 


8  COLLOIDAL  AND   CKYSTALLOIDAL 

colloidal  gold  and  silver  can  thus  be  resolved  into 
finest  suspensions  in  the  ultra-microscope,  with  which 
0'000004  mm.  can  he  still  seen. 

Crystallisation  in  crystalloids  answers  in  colloids  to  a 
process  which  is  designated  coagulation. 

Compared  with  the  complicated  process  of  crystallisa- 
tion, this  coagulation  is  perhaps  the  simpler,  yet  it  was 
investigated  much  later. 

Coaguia-         The  differences  between  the  processes  are  consider- 
c^sTaT1     a^e '    crystallisation    can    proceed    slowly,    e.g.,    in    a 
lisation.      moderately  concentrated    solution ;    it    can,  indeed,  in 
rare  cases  be  brought  about   suddenly,   e.g.,  in  super- 
saturated  solutions   of   Glauber's  salt   or    supercooled 
,     water. 

The  process  of  coagulation  always  occurs  in  the  latter 
way.  Crystallisation  and  coagulation  can  both  be 
brought  about  by  change  in  temperature,  but  coagula- 
tion can  also  be  effected  by  addition  of  electrolytes  ; 
only  in  the  case  of  a  supersaturated  crystalloidal  solu- 
tion, or  of  supercooled  water,  can  sudden  crystallisation 
be  caused  by  addition  of  a  crystal. 

The  following  coagulate,  or  change  from  the  state  of 
sol  to  that  of  gel  : — metal  and  metal  sulphide  hydrosols 
on  addition  of  an  electrolyte ;  glue  (col)a),  gelatine,  by 
lowering  of  temperature ;  casein  and  albumin  by  rise 
of  temperature,  both  also  on  addition  of  electrolytes, 
such  as  calcium  chloride  and  calcium  sulphate  ;  other 
albuminates  when  what  we  call  "  life  "  vanishes  from 
the  tissue.  In  crystalloidal  solutions  this  is  not  the 
case  ;  the  first  process  shows  the  intimate  relationships 
existing  between  matter  in  the  colloidal  state  and  the 
phenomenon  of  life.  If  the  gel *  can  be  transformed 
into  the  sol 1  again  by  the  addition  of  water,  the  process 
is  reversible ;  in  the  opposite  case  the  change  of  state 
is  irreversible  ;  fish-glue  is  a  type  of  the  reversible 
colloid,  silicic  acid  of  the  irreversible. 

A  further  property  of  colloidal  solutions  is  that  of 
passing  through  a  filter.  Colloidal  solutions  will  be 

1  [These  words  are  transposed  in  the  original,  obviously  bv  mistake. 
-Trr.] 


STATE   OF  MATTER  9 

considered  as  very  finely  divided  suspensions  or  emul- 
sions. 

The  colloidal  state  of  matter  also  possesses  relation-  Electrical 
ship  with  electrical  energy.  Colloidal  solutions  show  a  behaviour. 
decrease  of  electrical  conductivity,  and,  correspondingly, 
a  much  smaller  reaction  capacity  than  crystalloids. 
Thus  the  conductivity  of  colloidal  ferric  hydroxide 
decreases  as  the  content  in  colloidal  particles  increases  ; 
when  the  latter  is  increased  one  hundred  times,  the 
conductivity  is  decreased  by  25  per  cent.1  The  conduc- 
tivity of  solutions  of  the  alkali  silicates  is  much 
smaller  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  hydroxides,  on 
account  of  the  silicic  acid  hydrolytically  separated  in 
the  colloidal  state.2  Further,  if  an  electric  current  is 
passed  through  a  colloidal  solution,  the  particles  of 
arsenic  sulphide,  clay,  charcoal,  tannin,  gelatine,  gum, 
glycogen,  protein,  starch,  wander  in  the  direction 
of  the  negative  current  ;  others,  such  as  ferric 
hydroxide  and  aluminium  hydroxide,  in  that  of  the 
positive. 

In  connection  with  this  stands  the  theory  of  coagula- 
tion hased  on  the  fundamental  electrostatic  laws.3 
According  to  it,  coagulation  occurs  when  the  ions, 
added  or  already  present,  attract  to  themselves  the 
particles  in  the  colloidal  state  carrying  opposite  electric 
charge  ;  they  form  complexes  with  them  which  gradually 
sink  to  the  bottom. 

But  when  ions  and  colloidal  particles  of  the  same 
charge  meet,  according  to  the  fundamental  electrostatic 
laws,  a  repulsion  of  the  particles  occurs,  so  that  the 
colloidal  state  is  maintained.4 

With  this  is  connected   also   the   following  pheno-  Colloid- 
menon  :     Suspensions    of   very    finely  divided  crystal-  ally 
oidal    substances,  such  as  calcium  carbonate,   calcium 


1  f'ompt,  rend.  143,  40  —  40,  1900. 

-  .lonrn.  1'liys.  Chem.  2,  17,  1888. 

:>>  '/A.,  f.  I'hys.  Chcm.  4.">  (1JKW),  51  (100.-)). 

4  Regarding  the  "  Theory  of  Colloids,"  I  would  refer  to  the 
"Grundriss  tier  Kolloidchemie  "  of  Dr.  Wo.  Ostwald.  Publisher: 
Th.  SteinkopIT,  Dresden. 


10  COLLOIDAL  AND   CEYSTALLOIDAL 

sulphate,  barium  sulphate  only  remain  suspended  in 
water  for  a  short  time,  perhaps  an  hour ;  also  the  addk 
tion  of  electrolytes  is  without  any  action  on  them  ;  the 
particles  remain  suspended  and  do  not  sink  to  the 
bottom. 

On  the  contrary,  suspensions  of  colloidally  composed 
substances,  such  as  talc,  clay,  ultramarine,  cement, 
remain  suspended  days,  and  indeed  weeks ;  these  sub- 
stances in  contact  with  water  form  bodies  in  the 
colloidal  state,  the  hydroxides  of  silicon,  aluminium 
and  iron  ;  the  more  colloidal  bodies  a  substance  can 
form  the  more  markedly  occurs  the  phenomenon  of  long 
continued  suspension.  Further,  such  suspensions  sedi- 
mentate  rapidly  by  addition  of  electrolytes ;  salts,  such 
as  common  salt,  sodium  sulphate,  calcium  sulphate, 
accelerate  sedimentation.  Thus  a  suspension  of  ultra- 
marine, which  remains  suspended  ordinarily  for  about 
ten  hours,  is  sedimentated  by  addition  of  sodium  chloride 
in  twenty-five  minutes,  and  by  sodium  nitrate  in  ten 
minutes. 

There  are  two  causes  for  this  behaviour  :  the  electro- 
static attraction  between  the  particles  of  suspended 
substances,  which  are  surrounded  by  a  colloidal  envelope 
causing  suspension,  and  the  ions  carrying  the  opposite 
electric  charge  ;  and,  moreover,  the  removal  of  the  water 
of  the  colloid ;  those  substances  in  particular,  such  as 
calcium  chloride,  aluminium  chloride,  and  ferric 
chloride,  which  possess  hygroscopic  properties,  have 
the  most  powerful  action,  in  that  they  attract  to  them- 
selves the  water  of  the  colloid,  which  may  amount  to 
5 — 10  per  cent.,  when  the  destroy al  of  the  colloidal 
envelope  and  the  sedimentation  of  the  suspended 
substance  follows.1 

Permea-         There   is    another   law   which   must   be   formulated 
bility.        otherwise,  and  cannot  serve  as  a  principle  of  distinction 
between   substances  in  the   colloidal  and  crystalloidal 
state. 

1  Of.  P.  Rohland,  Phys.  Chem.  Zentralblatt,  VI.  1908,  on  the 
behaviour  of  suspended  substances  in  the  crystalloidal  and  colloidal 
state. 


STATE   OF  MATTER  11 

It  lias  been  said  hitherto  that  a  gelatinised  colloid 
can  no  longer  be  taken  up  by  a  second  colloid,  whose 
diffusion  it  hinders  while  it  allows  dissolved  crystalloids 
to  pass  through.  However,  in  the  dialysis  of  sodium 
silicate  Graham  represented  a  sharply  denned  case ;  in 
most  cases  the  capacity  of  diffusion  of  colloidal  solu- 
tions cannot  be  neglected,  and  in  dissolved  crystalloids 
the  velocity  of  penetration  shows  great  differences. 

Thus  coagulated  silicic  acid  is  impermeable  to 
magnesium  salts,  or  their  velocity  of  diffusion  is  at  all 
events  very  small. 

It  appears  that  the  magnitude  of  the  velocity  of 
diffusion  changes  considerably,  on  the  one  hand,  with 
the  nature  of  the  coagulated  colloid  or  of  the  membrane 
used,  and  on  the  other  hand  with  the  nature  of  the 
crystalloidal  solution. 

Many  substances  in  the  coagulated  state  readily 
permit  the  diffusion  of  the  crystalloid  water,  but 
not  of  substances  dissolved  in  it  which  have  also  a 
crystalloidal  nature,  at  least  only  to  a  small  extent. 

Copper  ferrocyanide  is  permeable  to  water,  but  not 
to  sugar,  saltpetre,  hydrochloric  acid  and  many  dyes 
which  dissolve  in  it. 

Plant  and  animal  membranes  also  allow  water  to 
pass  through,  but  permit  the  passage  of  substances 
soluble  in  it  only  slowly  if  at  all. 

Further,  the  envelope  of  the  cell  protoplasm  is  per- 
meable to  water,  but  not  to  many  substances  present  in 
the  cell  juices,  e.g.,  glucose,  potassium  and  calcium 
inahites,  and  some  inorganic  salts.1 

According  to  von  Calcar,  the  permeability  of  the  pre- 
pared amniotic  membrane  of  the  human  embryo  varies 
with  the  tension ;  by  this  membrane  two  elements  of 
the  diphtheria  toxin,  the  toxins  and  the  toxones,  can 
be  separated.2 

On  the  contrary,  the  behaviour  of  rubber  with  water 
is  exactly  the  reverse ;  in  this  case  it  is  not  permeable, 
though  it  is  for  many  organic  liquids. 

1  Zt.  f.  I'hys.  Chem.  2,  215,  1888. 

2  Zt.  f.  Cheni.  u.  Ind.  der  Koll.  1,  5  (1906). 


12  COLLOIDAL  AND   CKYSTALLOIDAL 

Probably  the  degree  of  permeability  depends  on 
the  condition  of  the  net  structure  of  the  coagulated 
substances. 

Toxicity.        Further,  the  poisonous  action  of  barium  salts  in  the 
colloidal  state  is  smaller  than  in  the  crystalloidal. 

It  is  probable  also  that  in  the  remedy  given  by 
Bun  sen  for  arsenic  poisoning,  ferric  hydroxide,  its 
colloidal  state  is  of  essential  significance  in  this  pro- 
tective action ;  it  would  be  of  physiological  interest  to 
test  whether  colloidal  aluminium  hydroxide  shows  an 
analogous  behaviour.  The  same  holds  for  magnesium 
hydroxide  (Antidote). 

Water  of        Water  of  gelatinisation  is  particularly  characteristic 

Geiatini-    of  the  colloidal  state ;    this  takes  the  place  of  water  of 

on'       crystallisation  in  substances  in  the  crystalloidal  state. 

Chevreul  was  the  first  to  distinguish  water  of  gela- 
tinisation as  bound  by  capillary  affinity ;  he  understood 
by  this  an  attractive  force  of  both  physical  and  chemical 
nature. 

Graham  interpreted  this  definition  in  the  following 
manner :  That  chemical  affinity  of  the  lowest  degree 
can  grade  into  capillary  attraction,  though  the  content 
in  water  of  gelatinisation  is  still  to  a  certain  extent 
"  truly  chemical "  as  the  content  in  water  of  crystal- 
lisation is,  but  that  the  combination  of  a  colloidal 
substance  with  water  is,  however,  only  weak. 

The  transformation  of  colloidal  water  to  the  crystal- 
lised state  can  only  be  effected  with  difficulty;  the 
compound  of  a  substance  in  the  colloidal  state  with 
water  is,  however,  of  a  different  nature  than  of  a  sub- 
stance in  the  crystalloidal  state.  Different  degrees  of 
strength  in  the  binding  or  linking  of  the  water  of 
gelatinisation  to  colloidal  substances  have  been  observed; 
the  water  is  the  more  firmly  bound  the  less  it  is 
adsorbed. 

Little  success  has  hitherto  been  attained  in  trans- 
forming substances  from  the  colloidal  to  the  crys- 
talloidal state  under  artificial  conditions  ;  silicon 
hydroxide  and  aluminium  hydroxide  can  be  obtained  in 
a  crystallised  state  from  their  colloidal  solutions ; 


STATE   OF  MATTEE  13 

however,  months  and  years,  together  with  periodic 
changes  of  temperature,  are  required  for  this  purpose. 
According  to  a  supposition  by  W.  Ostwald1  smoky 
quartz  has  resulted  in  this  way  in  nature. 

The  colloidal  state  shows  some  other  phenomena  worthy  Viscosity, 
of  note ;  the  viscosity  is  diminished  by  the  presence  of 
certain  kinds  of  ions ;  e.g.,  in  different  organic  sub- 
stances and  in  clays,  hydroxyl  ions  of  definite  concen- 
tration bring  about  this  diminution.2  In  these  cases 
this  is  to  be  ascribed  to  mutual  repulsion  of  the  nega- 
tive hydroxyl  ions,  and  the  similarly  negatively  charged 
colloidal  particles  of  clay. 

Further,  in  reactions  between  substances  in  the  col-  Adsorp- 
loidal  and  crystalloidal  state,  no  compounds  appear  in  p°^rndt 
rigid    stoichiometrical    proportions ;     adsorption   com-  pteact. 
pounds  are  formed  which  do  not  give  the  customary 
reactions ;     these    first    reappear   when    the    colloidal 
system  is  destroyed. 

Adsorbed  permanganate  does  not  react  with  hydro- 
gen peroxide,  sulphurous  acid,  ammonium  sulphide ; 
adsorbed  ferric  chloride  does  not  give  the  Prussian 
blue  reaction. 

VCO3"  and  HC(V  ions  adsorbed  by  cement  cannot  be 
detected  with  twice-normal  hydrochloric  acid  ; 3  vigorous 
evolution  of  carbon-dioxide  with  copious  formation  of 
ferric  chloride  first  occurs  on  addition  of  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid ;  the  adsorption  system  is  first 
destroyed  by  this,  whereby  the  appearance  of  the  ordi- 
nary reaction  is  secured. 

With  the  binding  of  these  ions  and  their  apparent 
disappearance  in  colloidal  structures  is  connected  a 
certain  slowness  or  incapacity  of  reaction,  such  as  in 
the  slightly  dissociated  mercury  cyanide. 

The  following  are  two  analogous  phenomena  in  which 
the  solubility  of  the  adsorbed  substance  is  changed  or 
reduced  to  zero ;  bottle  glass  often  contains  sodium 


1  "  Outlines  of  inorganic  chemistry." 

2  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  "  Die  Tone."     A.  Hartleben,  Vienna,  1909. 

8  P.  Rohland  (The  slowness  of  reaction  of  adsorbed  co8"  ioos). 


14  COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 

sulphate  in  large  quantities,  which  has  not  been  reduced 
to  sulphurous  acid  by  the  coal  in  manufacture.  It  is 
now  impossible  to  remove  this  from  the  manufactured 
glass  by  lixiviation  with  water :  the  adsorbed  sodium 
sulphate  has  become  insoluble  in  water. 

Only  when  the  glass  is  broken  up  and  digested  with 
water  for  a  long  time  in  the  pulverised  state  does  the 
sodium  sulphate  contained  in  it  pass  into  solution.1 

In  the  burning  of  bricks,  especially  with  easily  sinter- 
ing raw  material,  an  adsorption  compound  is  formed 
between  the  silicates  and  the  sodium  sulphate,  magne- 
sium sulphate,  or  calcium  sulphate,  whose  tendency  to 
dissolve  in  water  is  likewise  zero;  water  which  acci- 
dentally comes  into  contact  with  the  bricks  does  not 
dissolve  these  salts  ;  even  when,  in  consequence  of  the 
porosity  of  the  bricks,  the  water  penetrates  to  IRe 
interior,  these  sulphates  are  not  dissolved  out.  This  is 
very  important  in  considering  the  technology  of  building. 
It  has  been  established  that  a  fairly  high  temperature 
is  necessary  to  form  this  adsorption  compound  between 
the  sulphate  and  the  aluminium  silicate ;  on  gentle 
ignition  these  salts  are  not  adsorbed,  though  this  is 
the  case  on  moderate  and  vigorous  ignition  at  about 
1050 — 1090°.  Moreover,  it  also  depends  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  raw  material,  whether  or  not  such  a  com- 
pound between  the  silicates  and  sulphates  is  formed. 

The  content  in  adsorbed  salts  only  amounts  to  0*03— 
0*04  per  cent.,  yet  if  they  are  not  adsorbed  in  the  process 
of  burning  they  are  later  the  cause  of  decomposition  and 
decay,  which  give  rise  to  injury  and  destruction  of  the 
surface  of  the  brick. 

Adhesion.       The  colloidal  state  of  matter  also   shows  two  very 

characteristic  physical  phenomena.    The  single  particles 

have  a  most  marked  tendency  not  only  to  cleave  firmly  to 

one  another,  but  also  to  foreign  bodies,  a  property  which 

is  very  advantageous  in  concrete  and  ferro-concrete. 

Formation      The  other  physical  phenomena,  foam  formation,  can 

of  Foam.    ke   observed   above   all   when  substances    in    colloidal 

1  P.    Eohlancl  (Two    processes     in    pot   and   glass   manufacture). 
Zt.  f.  Angewandte  Chemie,  20,  4-t,  1907. 


STATE   OF   MATTER  15 

solution,  together  with  free  alkali  or  free  acid,  are  mechani- 
cally agitated ;  in  organic  colloids,  in  the  most  marked 
way  in  soaps,  and  further  in  protein ;  in  inorganic 
colloids  in  the  talcs,  when  they  form  silicon  hydroxide 
in  contact  with  water  and  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 

***** 

A  detailed  representation  of  the   extremely  weighty  Colloids, 
position  which  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  assume  Tecn- 
in  almost  all  branches  of  technology  and  numerous  indus-  and°gy 
tries  would  exceed  the  scope  of  this  work.  Some  important  Industry, 
industries  may  be  mentioned  here,  for  which  matter  in 
the  colloidal  state  has  become  of  great  importance. 

This  has  come  about  in  connection  with  an  industry 
which  at  the  first  glance  appears  very  remote — that  of 
cement  and  clay.1 

The   constitution   of  cement   and   the   cause  of  its  Cement 
hardening   have  been    fruitlessly  investigated   for  ten  Manufac- 
years.    The  problem  of  hardening  reflects  in  its  develop- 
ment all  phases  of  the  development  of  chemical  theory. 

Formation  of  silicates,  their  decomposition  in  different 
ways,  arrangement  of  the  atoms  in  the  sense  of  the 
organic  structural  theory,  were  given  successively  as 
the  cause  of  hardening. 

The  problem  of  hardening  has  been  first  pursued 
more  searchingly  on  the  basis  of  a  knowledge  of  the 
properties  of  substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  and  the 
impenetrable  veil  which  surrounded  it  has  been,  for 
the  most  part,  removed. 

From  the  adsorption  compound,  into  which  the  cal- 
cium oxide  has  entered  during  the  process  of  burning 
and  sintering  of  the  cement,  the  hydroxides  of  silicon, 
aluminium,  and  iron  split  off  in  the  colloidal  state  on 
mixing  with  water,  and  are  slowly  coagulated  by  the 
calcium  oxide,  simultaneously  partially  hydrolytically 
separated  and  hydrated. 

Further,  these  colloidal  substances  which  are  formed 
completely  adsorb  carbon-dioxide  from  the  air,  and  from 

1  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  Zeitschrift  f iir  Chemie  und  Industrie  der  Kolloide, 
IV.  5,  19U9.  Publisher  :  Th.  Steinkopff,  Dresden. 


16  COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 

this  adsorption  the  formation  of  calcium  carbonate  from 
the  calcium  hydroxide  follows. 

The  substances  coagulated  by  swelling  now  act  like 
glue  or  paste,  and  hinder  a  further  permeation  into 
the  interior  of  the  hardening  cement,  and  the  further 
process  of  hydrolysis.  Moreover,  the  gradual  coagula- 
tion causes  the  hydration  to  occur,  not  suddenly  as  in 
ordinary  quicklime,  but  very  slowly.  Accordingly  the 
"constitution"  of  hardened  cement  is  as  follows: — it 
consists  essentially,  both  on  the  surface  and  in  the 
layers  beneath,  of  calcium  carbonate  which  results  from 
the  hydrolytically  separated  lime  and  the  carbon-dioxide, 
and,  further,  of  the  coagulated  hydroxides  of  silicon, 
aluminium  and  iron. 

Concrete        The    substances    in    the    colloidal    state   formed  by 
and  Ferro-  cement  on  mixing  with  water  are  connected  also  with 
its    application    in    combination    with   gravel,    broken 
•     stones,  and  rubble  as  concrete  and  ferro-concrete.1    The 
colloidally  deposited  hydroxides  of  silicon,  aluminium, 
and  iron  have  the  capacity  of  taking  up  amorphous  or 
crystalloidal  bodies,  and  surrounding  them  solidly  ;  after 
the  coagulation  of  cement  with  gravel,  etc.,  this  com- 
bination forms  an  extremely  resistant  mass. 

The  strong  adhesion  of  concrete  to  cement,  which 
amounts  to  40 — 47  kgms.  per  sq.  cm.,  depends  on 
the  presence  in  the  colloidal  state  of  the  substances 
mentioned ;  these  cause  this  quite  considerable  force 
uniting  concrete  and  iron.  In  the  different  ferro- 
concrete systems,  Monier,  Hyatt,  and  others  attempted 
to  bring  this  adhesion  to  the  highest  possible  value  by 
embedding  iron  rods  and  wires  in  various  ways.  In 
consequence  of  the  strong  adhesion,  iron  with  external 
unevenness  is  not  necessary. 

Lime  In  ordinary  lime  mortar  also  these  colloidal  hydroxides 

Mortar.  ^jay  tne  same  par^ .  sman  admixtures  of  clayey  and 
muddy  components  may  be  contained  in  the  sand  added, 
which  increase  its  capacity  for  hardening. 


1  Cf.  P.  Robland,  Betonztg.  3,  49  (1909). 


STATE   OF  MATTER  17 

There  was  another  problem  in  the  industry  of  clay,  Clay  and 

which  was  capable  of  solution  by  the  help  of  substances  porcelain 
.      ,,  11    -Ti  J  Manufac- 

in  the  colloidal  state.  ture. 

Different  solutions  were  brought  forward  on  the 
question  of  the  cause  of  plasticity,  but  none  were  found 
sufficient ;  a  point  was  first  reached  by  colloidal  investi- 
gation at  which  the  door  was  opened  to  a  region  hitherto 
little  known  scientifically. 

The  previous  suppositions  on  the  causes  of  the  plas- 
ticity of  clay  were  based  on  various  properties  which 
were  attributed  to  clay  particles ;  porous  mesh-like 
structure,  spherical  form,  pliancy  without  elasticity, 
complete  power  of  cleaving,  flexibility,  small  spherical 
form,  smooth  surfaces,  condition  full  of  pores  (tending 
to  matting),  power  of  displacement,  rough  surfaces,  and 
others.  Other  authors  sought  for  the  causes  of  plasticity 
in  the  "  arrangement  of  the  single  molecules  and  atoms  " 
in  the  sense  of  the  organic  structural  hypothesis,  or  in 
conceptions  borrowed  from  physical  teaching,  such  as 
adhesion  and  cohesion,  which  are  only  mere  "con- 
ceptions" inaccessible  to  scientific  treatment,  and  thus 
carne  to  no  result.  All  these  statements  have  this  in 
common — that  they  do  not  go  beyond  more  or  less  good 
comparisons  ;*they  do  not  show  the  particular  causes  of 
plasticity. 

For  example,  a  spherical  form  with  smooth  surfaces 
can  be  assumed  in  sand  free  from  clay ;  however,  this 
never  gives  a  plastic  mass. 

The  real  explanation  for  the  causes  of  plasticity  must 
be  this :  that  clay  in  the  air-dried  state  contains  sub- 
stances in  the  colloidal  state  and  forms  them  in  con- 
tact with  water  (the  already-mentioned  hydroxides  of 
silicon,  aluminium  and  iron,  and  probably  organic 
substances),  and  further,  that  these  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state  possess  plastic  properties ;  colloidal 
nature  and  plasticity  stand  in  causative  connection. 

Thus  clay  slate  when  freshly  broken  is  a  completely 
unplastic  material ;  it  first  possesses  plastic  properties 
after  it  has  "  decomposed  "  for  a  long  time,  when  in 
contact  with  water  it  forms  the  above-named  substances 

C.M.  c 


18  COLLOIDAL   AND   CKYSTALLOIDAL 

in  the  colloidal  state.  That  pure  kaolin  is  very  slightly 
plastic,  indeed  can  he  unplastic,  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
these  colloidal  hydroxides  of  silicon,  aluminium  and 
iron  arc  first  formed,  and  then  carried  away  hy  the 
water  in  the  kaolinisation  of  granitic  rocks. 

Clays  containing  zinc,  which  contain  practically  no 
aluminium  silicate,  are  strongly  plastic  on  this  account, 
since  in  contact  with  water  they  form  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state,  the  hydroxides  of  zinc  and  silicon. 

The  clays  have  consequently  the  power  of  absorbing 
water,  which  is  connected  with  the  contraction  in 
taking  up  water,  and  a  maximum  of  swelling,  capacity 
for  shrinking  on  drying  in  air  and  in  fire,  power  of 
binding  small  amorphous  and  crystalloidal  substances, 
the  so-called  thinners ;  in  the .  coagulated  state  they 
possess  the  property  of  hindering  diffusion  and  arresting 
other  colloidal  solutions ;  while  they  allow  solutions  of 
crystalloidal  substances  to  diffuse ;  finally,  they  have 
the  capacity  of  adsorbing  dyestuifs  of  complicated 
structure,  and  different  kinds  of  ions,  carbonic  and 
boric  acid  ions  completely,  and  phosphoric  acid  ions 
partially,  further,  unsaturated  hydrocarbons  of  the 
composition  CnH2n_2,CnH2n,  and  finally  strong  and  even 
foetid  odours. 

Classifica-       Since,  therefore,  these  clays  adsorb  and   retain  sub- 
Purifio?     stances  in  the  colloidal  state — such  as  oils,  fats,  con- 
tion  of       centra  ted   soap    solutions,    starch,    dextrin,    maltose, 
Effluent     glycerine,    plant    and    animal    albumin,    casein,    etc., 
Waters,      further,    inorganic    dyes,  such    as    Prussian    blue    and 
Turnbull's  blue,  all  coal-tar  dyes,  colours,  the  colouring 
matter   of  beer,    all    plant  colouring  matters,  indigo, 
curcuma,  the  colouring  matter  of  the  carrot,  berberine, 
the   colouring   matters    derived    from    various    woods 
(Brazil  wood,  logwood,  fustic),  animal  colouring  matters, 
such     as     carmine,    the    colouring     matter     of     the 
blood,  the  yellowish-brown  colouring  matter  of  urine, 
faecal  matter,  further,  all  bad  odours,   certain  hydro- 
carbons   and    kinds    of  ions — they    are    suitable    for 
clearing,    decolourising,    and    purifying    the    effluent 
waters    of   factories    and    works,    which  contain  many 


STATE   OF  MATTER  19 

substances  in  the  colloidal  state  and  many  colouring 
matters,  those  of  the  carbohydrate  industries,  starch 
and  dextrin,  dyeing,  tanning,  soap-boiling,  paper  and 
sugar  works,  breweries  and  distilleries,  and  finally  town 
sewage.1 

It  is  exactly  these  effluents,  containing  many  sub- 
stances in  the  colloidal  state  and  many  colouring 
matters,  which  can  be  purified  only  with  difficulty, 
or  indeed,  not  at  all,  by  other  previous  methods — 
mechanical  separation,  the  addition  of  chemicals,  irriga- 
tion and  the  biological  method,  and  the  electro-chemical 
method. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  these  substances  especially 
which,  when  they  pass  from  the  effluents  into  slowly 
flowing  waters  in  particular,  injure  and  destroy  plant 
and  animal  life. 

If  the  effluents  contain  no  agriculturally  injurious 
substances,  the  clays  which  have  accomplished  the 
adsorption  can  find  application  as  manures,  or  they  can 
be  advantageously  employed  in  the  ceramic  industry, 
since  their  degree  of  plasticity  has  been  raised  by 
addition  of  substances  in  the  colloidal  state. 

On  this  basis  also  may  be  considered  the  means  which  Change 
find  application  for  raising  and  diminishing  the  degree  °J' the 
of  Plasticity.  S*£ 

The  so-called  decomposition  of  clay  serves  the  former  of  Clay, 
purpose ;  this  is  performed  in  cool  and  moist  cellars, 
and  finds  especial  application  in  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain ;  thereby  is  brought  about  essentially  an 
increase  in  the  colloidally  dissolved  substances  of  the 
clay,  already  mixed  with  felspar,  etc.  After  some  time 
the  mass  of  clay  shows  an  alkaline  reaction,  derived 
from  the  hydrolytically  decomposed  felspar.  Further,  a 
decomposition  then  occurs  of  the  organic  substances 
present  in  the  clay  and  in  the  water  used  ;  this  is  an 
acid  fermentation  which  depends  on  physiological 
processes,  perhaps  the  activity  of  bacteria,  probably  of 

1  Cf.    P.  Kohland,   Die  chemische  Industrie,  33,   5  (1910).    The 
method  of  purifying  effluents  and  sewage  by  clay. 

c  2 


20  COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 

ferments.  Thereby  the  alkalinity  of  the  decomposing 
clay  is  arrested ;  hydrogen  ions  are  produced  which 
accelerate  the  coagulation  of  the  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state,  whereby  the  degree  of  plasticity  is 
raised. 

For  this  purpose  inorganic  and  organic  colloids, 
aluminium  hydroxide,  silicon  hydroxide,  agglutinated 
starch,  tannin,  gluten,  etc.,  are  added  before  decom- 
position. 

During  decomposition  the  following  process  further 
takes  place ;  in  a  mass  of  clay  soaked  with  water  a 
contraction  occurs  in  consequence  of  the  content  of 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state ;  the  volume  of  the 
swollen  clay  is  smaller  than  the  original  volume  plus 
that  of  the  absorbed  water.  This  contraction  is 
accompanied  with  the  evolution  of  heat. 

By  lowering  of  temperature,  such  as  occurs  in  cool 
cellars,  absorption  of  water  and  contraction  proceed  to 
a  greater  extent,  which  likewise  results  in  raising  the 
degree  of  plasticity. 

Wintering      In  ordinary  clays,  the  raw  material  of  pots,  bricks, 
a,nd  etc.,  as  a  rule,  only  "wintering"  and  ''summering" 

ing?11  occur ;  the  object  and  result  is  the  same  in  both.  In 
the  first  case  the  clay  is  piled  up  in  long  heaps  60  to 
90  cm.  high,  frequently  stirred  up  and  watered  ;  in 
the  latter  case  it  is  spread  on  the  ground  in  thin 
layers. 

Thereby  a  mechanical  loosening  of  the  clay  occurs ; 
llio  chemical  processes  consist  in  the  oxidation  of  sub- 
s.ances  poor  in  oxygen,  ferrous  to  ferric  salts,  iron 
sulphide  to  ferrous  sulphate ;  the  most  essential  is  that 
by  the  repeated  moistening  with  water,  the  amount  of 
colloids  in  the  clay  is  increased,  and  thereby  the  degree 
of  plasticity  is  raised. 

The  reverse  process,  the  diminution  of  the  degree 
of  plasticity,  is  effected  by  addition  of  alkalies ;  the 
coagu'ation  of  the  colloidal  hydroxides  is  retarded  or 
arrested  by  the  hydroxyl  ions  of  the  alkali ;  salts  which 

1  [Ausicintern  and  Amsommcrn.'] 


/>/\l"l4"(ll  Yl 


STATE   OF   MATTER  21 


contain  Lydroxyl  ions  in  the  solution  by  hydrolysis, 
e.g.,  sodium  and  potassium  carbonates,  find  application 
as  well  as  alkalies ;  yet  in  these  the  influence  of  the 
hydroxyl  ions  may  be  weakened,  compensated  or  even 
strengthened,  by  the  kathodic  element  of  the  salt  in 
question. 

Only  clays  which  contain  quite  definite  organic  sub- 
stances permit  such  diminution  of  the  degree  of 
plasticity,  or  "  fusion  "  ;  in  a  clay  from  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony  these  are  of  a  fatty  nature  and  are  hydrolysed 
by  addition  of  alkali ;  on  such  clays  hydroxyl  ions  exert 
an  action  partly  liquefying,  partly  coagulating;  the 
latter  influence  is  exerted  on  these  soapy  substances,  as 
will  be  shown  later  in  soap  manufacture. 

This  "fusion"    of   the    clay    by   alkali    finds  tech- Manufac- 
nical    application   in   the   manufacture  of  pottery  and  ^ure  of 
enamelled  ware ;  this  process  is  particularly    valuable,  a^fery 
especially  for  the  latter,  since  when  it  is  manufactured  Enamelled 
in  another   way   it  shows  a  smaller  degree   of  resisti-  War«- 
bility. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  action  of  alkalies  or 
hydroxyl  ions  on  clays,  which  finds  expression  in  a 
diminution  of  the  degree  of  plasticity  and  a  "fusion" 
is  based  in  general  on  a  mutual  repulsion,  according 
to  electrostatic  laws,  of  the  colloidal  particles  charged 
with  negative  electricity,  and  the  hydroxyl  ions ;  the 
action  of  acids  or  hydrogen  ions,  which  accelerate 
coagulation,  comes  about  because  these,  being  charged 
with  positive  electricity,  attract  the  negative  colloidal 
particles,  forming  complex  masses  and  thus  bringing 
about  coagulation. 

Substances  in  the  colloidal  state  play  a  not  incon-  Soap 
siderable  part  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  ;  concentrated 
soap  solutions  possess  a  marked  colloidal  character  ; 
they  have  the  same  tension  and  the  same  boiling-point 
as  pure  water,  a  very  small  elevation  of  the  boiling- 
point  and  depression  of  the  freezing-point,  and  small 
osmotic  pressure. 

Through  these  properties  of  soap  solutions  can  be 
explained  rules  which  have  been  empirically  obtained 


22  COLLOIDAL  AND   CBYSTALLOIDAL 

iu  soap  manufacture.1  Each  soap  undergoes  the  so- 
called  "  rectification  " 2 ;  this  signifies  that  not  only  the 
quantity  of  alkali  stoichoimetrically  necessary  for  saponi- 
fication  is  added,  but  that  a  definite  excess  is  necessary 
after  saponification. 

When  a  mixture  of  oils  has  been  saponified  with 
alkali  by  the  first  process  only,  a  soft  soap  is  formed 
of  fluid  nature  ;  but  by  the  excess  of  hydroxyl  ions  a 
coagulation  of  the  colloidal  soap  solution  occurs. 

The  coagulating  action  of  the  hydroxyl  ions  comes 
into  play  in  soap  manufacture  in  yet  another  place, 
and  indeed,  in  a  manner  at  first  disadvantageous.  To 
weaken  or  prevent  it  a  carbonate,  soda  or  potash,  is 
added  in  the  so-called  "  causticity  reaction."  This 
name  comes  from  the  time  when  the  soap-boiler 
prepared  his  own  lyes  ;  he  causticised  soda  and  potash 
solutions  by  lime,  and  thus  obtained  lyes  of  a  definite 
"  lime  ratio,"  i.e.,  ratio  of  caustic  to  carbonate.  If  the 
content  of  the  latter  was  too  low  he  rendered  the  lye 
"lower  in  lime"  or  "reduced  the  causticity"  by  adding 
soda  or  potash.  This  process  was  called  "  grading."  ' 

But  if  the  addition  of  carbonates  is  increased  during 
the  "  caustification  reaction"  the  coagulating  action  of 
the  hydroxyl  ions  comes  into  play,  so  that  the  soap  is 
thick  and  viscous.  The  solution  in  the  kettle  consists 
of  the  alkali  salts  of  the  fatty  acids  formed  during 
saponification,  together  with  caustic  alkalies,  alkali 
carbonates,  and  other  salts,  and  is  of  a  colloidal  nature. 

This  influence  inhibiting  the  coagulating  action  is  to 
be  ascribed  to  the  carbonate  ions.  These  ions  exert  here 
a  similar  influence  to  that  of  the  hydroxyl  ions  on  clay. 
It  consists  in  a  sort  of  protective  action,  in  that  it 
hinders  coagulation. 

Such  protective  action  is  already  known  in  other 
colloidal  solutions.  Colloidal  gold  or  platinum  is  more 
stable  in  alkaline  than  in  pure  water  ;  small  quantities  of 

1  P.  Rohland,  Chem.  Ind.  30,  20,  1907.      The  action  of  Hydroxyl 
ion?  in  soap  manufacture. 

2  Abi'iclttung. 
8   Yersetzuny. 


K  \T/1  **r\rrn' 


STATE    OF   MATTER  03 


hydrogen  ions  retard  the  precipitation  of  ferric  hydroxide. 
Farther,  albumin  and  gelatine  raise  the  stability  of  in- 
organic colloidal  solutions,  so  that  they  cannot  be  pre- 
cipitated out.  In  this  way  also  is  to  be  explained  the 
protective  action  of  the  carbonate  ions. 

The  extraction  of  sugar  from  beetroot  could  not  be  Sugar 
performed  relatively  so  easily  if  the  division  of  substances  Manufac- 
in  it  into  the  crystalloidal  and  colloidal  states  did  not ture' 
render  this  possible.     It  depends  on  the  different  pro- 
perties of  both  in  diffusion  through  a  membrane. 

After  the  division  of  the  beetroot  into  shreds,  which 
are  extracted  with  water  at  a  fairly  high  temperature, 
the  walls  of  the  single  beet  cells  behave  as  semi-per- 
meable membranes. 

The  process  of  separation  is  based  on  this  semi- 
permeability  of  the  walls  of  these  plant  cells,  while  the 
substances  in  the  crystalloidal  state,  sugar,  inorganic 
salts,  etc.,  diffuse  through  the  walls,  the  substances  in 
the  colloidal  state,  proteins,  pectins,  gum,  are  held 
back  ;  or  the  former  pass  through  the  pores  of  these 
semi-permeable  walls  with  great  ease  and  speed,  while 
the  latter  pass  through  quite  slowly  and  only  with  diffi- 
culty. This  diffusion  first  begins  in  the  cells  at  the 
surface  of  the  shreds,  but  continues  from  cell  to  cell, 
so  that  by  sufficiently  long  action  and  with  frequent 
renewal  of  the  water  the  whole  sugar  content  can  be 
extracted. 

The  method  of  extracting  the  beet  shreds  electro- 
chemically  depends  also  on  the  presence  of  colloidal 
substances,  and  their  property  of  wandering  to  the 
anode  in  the  direction  of  the  negative  current. 

Though  the  art  of  dyeing  fibres,  linen,  wool,  silk,  is  Dyeing, 
so  old,  the  theory  of  dyeing  is  of  quite  recent  date. 
There  are  dyes  which  combine  with  plant  and  animal 
fibres  without  further  treatment,  while  in  others  this  is 
only  accomplished  after  mordanting  with  an  organic  or 
inorganic  substance. 

Presumably  the  theories  of  dyeing  will  offer  explana- 
tion to  a  still  greater  extent,  when  the  knowledge  of  the 
adsorption  of  dyes  by  substances  in  the  colloidal  state, 


24  COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 

and  of  adsorption  phenomena  in  general,  is  yet  further 
advanced. 

Textile  fibres  possess  a  colloidal  character ;  in  the 
moist  and  swollen  state,  which  they  assume  by  treat- 
ment with  acids  or  alkalies,  they  easily  absorb  other 
substances,  e.g.,  dyes.  Dyeing  must  be  considered  as 
an  adsorption  process. 

This  explains  the  necessity,  well  known  from  a 
technical  point  of  view,  that  in  wool  printing  the  atmo- 
sphere and  the  wool  itself  must  possess  a  certain  degree 
of  humidity,  so  that  the  colour  may  completely  develop 
and  be  retained ;  the  cause  of  this  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  moist  wool  swells  in  water  vapour  and 
passes  into  the  colloidal  state,  and  then  adsorbs  the  dye. 

A  further  proof  of  the  colloidal  nature  of  textile  fibres 
is  this :  the  adsorption  of  the  dye  is  accelerated  by  the 
acidification  of  the  bath  in  which  the  wool  is  dyed,  but 
it  ceases  on  subsequent  dyeing  in  a  bath  without  acid ; 
this  is  because  the  wool  again  passes  into  the  normal 
condition  when  it  is  no  longer  in  contact  with  the 
acid  bath. 

Also  fibres  of  the  type  of  silk,  i.e.,  fibroin,  show 
colloidal  properties ;  a  silk  fibre  can  be  loaded  with 
foreign  substances  up  to  250  per  cent,  without  losing 
its  appearance  and  lustre.  This  again  is  only  rendered 
possible  by  substances  in  the  colloidal  state — e.g.,  albu- 
mins ;  the  stronger  the  colloidal  nature  of  a  substance, 
the  greater  is  its  power  of  adsorption. 

The  felting  of  wool  and  hair  is  brought  about  by  the 
transformation  of  the  fibre  to  the  condition  of  a  gel, 
by  an  alkaline  or  acid  bath ;  adherence  is  caused  by 
mechanical  felting. 

The  fact  that  mercerised  cotton  will  dye  easier  and 
darker  than  ordinary  cotton  can  also  be  explained  by  its 
colloidal  structure.  By  the  action  of  soda  lye  the  cotton 
passes  into  a  gelatinised  condition,  which  persists  after 
repeated  washing  and  favours  the  adsorption  of  the  dye.1 

1  Cf.  E.  Justin-Mueller,  Zt.  f.  Ind.  u.  Chem.  d.  Roll.  (The  nature 
of  textile  fibres),  I.  11,  1907. 


STATE   OF   MATTER  25 

Both  animal  and  vegetable  fibres,  of  the  former, 
principally  the  albumins,  of  the  latter,  carbohydrates, 
are  of  colloidal  nature.  All  these  processes  completely 
recall  the  adsorption  of  dyestuffs  of  complicated  structure 
by  clay  and  talc,  also  the  insolubility  in  water  caused  in 
these  dyestuffs  by  adsorption  ;  there  is  this  in  common, 
that  they  have  their  causes  in  the  peculiar  structure  of 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state. 

In  the  finishing  of  printed  cotton  materials  substances 
in  the  colloidal  state  also  find  application;  they  are 
finished  to  improve  their  outward  appearance ;  a  sub- 
stance in  the  colloidal  state,  such  as  starch  or  dextrin, 
is  pressed  into  them. 

The  industry  of  tanning  also  requires  substances  in  Tanning, 
the  colloidal  state ;  animal  hides  were  first  rubbed  with 
fat  and  thus  made  supple ;  later  the  use  of  gall-nuts, 
oak  bark  and  tan,  pine  bark,  quebracho  wood,  etc.,  was 
learnt ;  all  these  natural  products  contain  colloidal  sub- 
stances, tannic  acids,  of  which  tannin,  digallo-tannic 
acid,  is  the  most  accurately  known.  Animal  and  mineral 
tans  also  contain  substances  of  a  colloidal  character,  the 
degree  of  which  is  of  essential  significance. 

The  theory  of  tanning  which  best  answers  to  facts, 
regards  the  processes,  particularly  in  the  swollen  state 
of  the  hide,  as  processes  of  adsorption. 

Oar  youngest  industries,  those  of  automobiles  and  Motors 
airships,   likewise  require   substances  in   the  colloidal      1,. 
state — rubber,  gutta-percha,  and  celluloid. 

Rubber,  the  latex  of  tropical  EuphorbiaceaB,  becomes 
brittle  and  unelastic  in  the  air  by  oxidation ;  as  such  it 
serves  for  the  manufacture  of  erasers,  tubes,  plates ; 
by  heating  with  molten  sulphur  (10 — 15  per  cent.)  it  is 
changed  into  the  so-called  vulcanised  rubber,  whereby 
it  acquires  an  elasticity  which  remains  on  heating. 
Extensive  researches  have  been  recently  made  on  this 
process.1 

By  heating  with  a  larger  amount  of  sulphur  to  120— 

1  Cf.   K.   Ditmar,    '/A.    flir   Chemie   und   Industrie   der    Kolloidc, 
190G— 1909. 


26 


COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 


Paper 
Manufac- 
ture. 


150°,  rubber  is  changed  into  a  horny  modification  which 
finds  application  in  the  manufacture  of  combs,  pen- 
holders, etc.,  as  ebonite  or  hard  rubber. 

Gutta-percha,  likewise  a  dried-up  tropical  latex,  is 
tough  and  only  slightly  elastic  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
but  at  higher  temperatures  (60 — 70°)  it  can  be  easily 
shaped  ;  it  principally  serves,  as  the  second  modification 
of  rubber,  for  the  manufacture  of  tubes,  pneumatics, 
etc. ;  it  is  further  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cables 
on  account  of  its  electrical  insulating  power. 

Celluloid,  a  mixture  of  a  colloidal  substance,  collo- 
dion, with  camphor,  has  found  much  application  in  the 
erection  of  the  last  Zeppelin  airship. 

The  working  of  resins  and  the  manufacture  of  varnish 
is  essentially  based  on  substances  in  the  colloidal  state. 

Both  the  older  paper  manufacture,  which  worked  up 
rags,  and  the  newer,  which  starts  from  cellulose,  has 
frequently  to  deal  with  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  ; 
in  "water  sizing,"  a  process  in  which  the  property  of 
running  is  taken  from  the  paper,  a  solution  of  resin  in 
soda  iye,  starch,  alum  or  aluminium  sulphate  is  added. 
Resiuic  acid  is  thus  precipitated,  which  remaining  mixed 
with  the  paper  prevents  running,  while  the  starch  hinders 
the  precipitation  of  the  resinic  acid  on  account  of  its 
colloidal  condition. 

In  the  manufacture  of  the  tungsten  lamp  the  metal 
tungsten  in  the  colloidal  state  plays  a  characteristic 
part.  This  metal  has  indeed  the  advantage  of  possess- 
ing a  high  melting-point  (2,800°),  but  it  is  too  brittle  to 
be  drawn  out  into  wires ;  its  colloidal  solution  is  first 
formed  by  a  suitable  chemical  treatment  of  the  crystal- 
loidal  tungsten  ;  it  can  then  be  precipitated  in  the  col- 
loidal state. 

The  metal  in  the  colloidal  state  is  no  longer  brittle, 
but  can  be  easily  drawn  out  into  threads,  so  that  it  can 
be  employed  for  the  purpose  of  illumination. 
Gold  Ruby      In  the  manufacture  of  gold  ruby  glass  a  colloidal 
Glass.         solution  of  gold  is  employed ;  it  is  formed  when  gold 
chloride  is  added  to  glass ;  by  sudden  lowering  of  tem- 
perature a  colourless  glass  first  results.     Gold  in  the 


Tungsten 
Lamp. 


STATE   OF   MATTER  27 

colloidal  state  is  formed  by  repeated  heating,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  glass  acquires  a  superb  colour. 
These  processes  can  be  rendered  visible  with  the  aid  of 
the  ultra-microscope. 

The  long  known  gold  purple  of  Cassius  is  also  of  a  Purple  of 
colloidal  nature ;  it  is  obtained  by  reduction  of  a  gold  Cassius. 
hydro-chloride    solution   with    a   solution    of    stannous 
chloride.    A  most  remarkable  phenomenon  then  occurs, 
a  sort  of  mimicry  between  two  substances  in  the  colloidal 
inorganic  state  which  is  otherwise  only  found  in  organised 
nature  between  certain  plants  and  animals.    The  colloidal 
solution  of  gold  has  completely  assumed  the  properties 
of  stannic  acid  hydrosol  in  chemical  respects,  while  it 
has  only  communicated  its  colour  to  the  latter. 

In  the  manufacture  of  silver  and  gold  mirrors  colloidal  Silver  and 
solutions  of  gold  and  silver  are  of  importance  ;  in  these  Gold 
metallic  silver  is  precipitated  from  a  crystalloidal  silver 
solution  by  a  reducing  agent ;  thereby  is  obtained  tran- 
sitorily the  red  colour  of  a  colloidal  silver  solution.     It 
is  now  necessary  to  precipitate  it  from  this  colloidal 
solution,  which  is  so  sensitive  to  external  influences,  in 
such  a  form  that  a  beautiful  silver  or  gold  mirror  results. 
The  condition  of  the  glass  surface  is  of  importance  here. 

The  activity  of  the  dry  cell  depends  on  the  electro-  Dry  Cell, 
lytic  conduction  occurring  in  the  coagulated  gelatine  to 
the  same  extent,  and  according  to  the  same  laws,  as  in 
water. 

Mankind  is  indebted  to  matter  in  the  colloidal  state  Blasting 
for  Alfred  Nobel's  blasting  gelatine.    By  combination  of  Gelatine, 
collodion  or  soluble  gun-cotton  with  nitro- glycerine  he 
obtained  a  mass  of  gelatinous  or  gum-like  consistency. 
The  proportion  is  about  93  per  cent,  nitre-glycerine 
and  7  per  cent,   soluble   gun   cotton;  it   is  an  amber 
yellow  transparent  elastic  mass,  which  can  be  kept  for 
a  very  long  time  under  water.     It  explodes  at  204°  on 
slow  heating,  240°  on  rapid  heating. 

Its  great  advantage  over  other  explosives,  such  as 
dynamite,  is  that  it  is  quite  considerably  less  sensitive 
against  shocks ;  blasting  gelatine  first  explodes  with  a 
shock  of  3J  kgms.,  or  it  must  be  vigorously  detonated. 


28  COLLOIDAL   AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 

This  great  resistance  against  shock,  etc.,  which  would 
not  be  possible  with  a  crystalloidal  body,  is  a  conse- 
quence of  the  colloidal  nature  of  the  blasting  gelatine. 
Gun-  Further,  it  was  first  possible  to  prepare  a  smokeless 

cotton.  powder  by  using  a  substance  in  the  colloidal  state,  gun- 
cotton.  Here  the  application  of  a  substance  in  the 
colloidal  state  has  brought  about  a  change  in  the  tactics 
and  strategy  of  war,  which  can  be  considered  of  equal 
importance  with  the  discovery  of  the  first  black  gun- 
powder. 

Photo-  A  smaller  technical  advance  is  signified  by  the  intro- 

graphy.  duction  of  gelatine  for  the  development  of  scientific  and 
artistic  photography ;  and  an  advance  of  great  import- 
ance to  civilisation  has  been  made  by  the  introduction 
of  culture-gelatine  for  bacteriology. 

An  alchemist,  Heinrich  Schulze,  made  the  first 
"photographic"  observation  in  Halle-a.-S.  in  the  year 
1727 ;  he  dissolved  silver,  which  stood  in  the  sun,  in 
nitric  acid,  and  poured  this  solution  on  chalk ;  he  then 
remarked  to  his  astonishment  that  the  side  of  the  chalk 
turned  to  the  sun  was  coloured  dark,  while  the  other 
side  remained  white. 

Daguerre  exposed  a  silver  plate  to  the  vapours  of 
iodine,  and  allowed  the  image  of  a  camera  obscura  to 
act  upon  it ;  after  the  action  which  followed,  the  plate 
was  brought  into  the  vapour  of  gently  warmed  mercury, 
whereby  a  picture  was  conjured  forth. 

But  it  was  the  application  of  a  substance  in  the 
colloidal  state,  first  collodion,  then  gelatine,  which 
produced  a  great  advance  in  photography. 

Glass  plates  were  covered  with  gelatine  in  which 
there  was  a  layer  of  silver  bromide  sensitive  to  light ; 
the  plates  thus  prepared  cannot  be  used  at  first,  but 
must  be  stored  ;  the  plates,  at  first  transparent,  become 
opaque  ;  the  particles  of  silver  bromide  agglomerate, 
and  then  possess  the  maximum  of  sensitiveness  to 
light.1 

1  Considered  at  length  in  Dr.  Liippo-Cramer,  "  Kolloidchemie  und 
Photographic."     Th.  Steinkopff,  Dresden. 


STATE   OF  MATTER  29 

This  property  of  the  haloid  silver  salts  presents  many 
problems  which  can  only  be  further  elucidated  by  the 
study  of  colloidal  chemical  phenomena. 

An  external  change  of  colour  cannot  be  perceived  on 
an  illuminated  silver  bromide  plate ;  it  is  first  recog- 
nisable on  subsequent  development  with  a  developer, 
when  the  parts  of  the  silver  bromide,  more  or  less 
attacked  by  the  radiant  energy,  react  with  corre- 
spondingly greater  or  smaller  velocity. 

Through  this  there  first  appears  a  visible  change  of 
the  silver  haloid ;  a  blackening  occurs,  resulting  from 
the  metal  and  metal  oxide  compounds  which  separate. 

All  these  processes  are  only  possible  in  a  colloidal 
medium;  a  characteristic  adsorption  phenomenon  is 
here  in  question,  and  in  combination  with  it  stands  the 
slowness  of  reaction  of  the  silver  bromide,  which  does 
not  react  directly  to  the  radiant  energy,  but  first  mani- 
fests a  greater  reaction  velocity  through  a  developer. 

It  was  a  substance  in  the  colloidal  state  whose  appli-  Bacterio- 
cation  brought  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  to  all  man-  lo°^' 
kind.     Bacteria  are  themselves  of  colloidal  nature ;  it 
was  first  possible  to  learn  more  intimately  their  condi- 
tions of  life,  when  a  foodstuff  was  found  in  which  they 
could  develop  and  be  obtained  in  the  greatest  purity. 
The  introduction  of  culture- gelatine,  by  Robert  Koch, 
rendered  possible  the  growth  of  pure  cultures,  and  the 
discovery  of  methods  to  make  uninjurious  these  small 
but  extremely  dangerous  enemies  of  mankind. 

The   chemistry    of   foodstuffs  has  much  to  do  with  Chemistry 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state ;    our  foodstuffs  come  °tfufl°oc 
from  plants  and  animals,  which  for  the  most  part  con- 
sist of  colloids.    Flesh,  blood  and  brains  are  of  colloidal 
nature ;   the  manufacture  of  carbohydrates,  starch  and 
dextrin,   is  exclusively  occupied  with  colloidal  bodies. 
Potato    starch,    wheat    starch    and   arrowroot    are    the 
principal  representatives  of  this  class. 

The   processes  in  the  preparation  of  dough  and  in  Baking, 
baking    take    place    in    colloidal    media;     the   proto- 
plasm of  yeast  cells  is  of  colloidal  nature  ;  fermentation 
is  a  process  which  can  occur,  with  its  characteristic 


30 


COLLOIDAL   AND   CEYSTALLOIDAL 


absorption  of  water  and  swelling,  only  in  substances  in 
the  colloidal  state. 

In  baking,  the  starch  is  transformed  into  dextrose 
and  caramel-like  products  ;  the  proteins  undergo  partial 
changes,  albumins  are  transformed  into  the  coagulated 
state,  casein  and  fibroin  unite  with  the  swollen  particles 
of  starch. 

When  unpalatable  bread  results  in  baking,  the  cause 
is  to  be  sought  in  the  processes  of  change  of  colloidal 
substances  of  the  starch,  the  adhesive  which  influences 
the  goodness  and  taste  of  the  bread. 

Brewing.  Beer  is  essentially  a  solution  of  carbohydrates,  i.e., 
colloidal  substances  and  the  constituents  of  hops,  which 
are  partially  electrolytes  ;  the  strong  foam  formation 
comes  about  by  action  of  the  free  acid  in  the  beer,  i.e., 
hydrogen  ions  on  the  colloids  ;  in  the  process  of  brewing, 
starch  and  especially  protein  from  the  grains  of  malt 
are  changed  into  a  colloidal  extract  soluble  in  water. 
The  colloids  of  beer,  like  those  of  clay,  also  adsorb 
carbon-dioxide.1 

The  raw  materials  of  pure  beer,  hops  and  malt, 
develop  and  change  in  brewing,  under  the  action  of  the 
colloidal  yeast  protoplasm,  into  numerous  substances 
in  the  colloidal  state,  hop  oils  and  resins,  starch, 
dextrin,  maltoses  and  albumins. 

Brandy  and  potato  spirit  distilleries  also  partially 
utilise  substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  raw  materials 
containing  starch,  grain  and  potatoes;  the  change  into 
further  colloidal  substances,  dextrose,  maltose  and  iso- 
maltose  is  effected  by  a  ferment,  the  diastase  of  malt. 

In  Italy,  maize  starch  is  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  under  2 — 3  atmospheres  pressure,  and  thereby, 
beside  dextrin  and  iso-maltose,  dextrose  or  grape  sugar 
is  formed ;  this  is  one  of  the  rare  processes  in  which  a 
crystalloid  substance  is  formed  from  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state. 

Cows'  milk,  the  initial  product  in  dairy  work  (utilisa- 
tion of  milk,  obtaining  cream,  butter  and  cheese)  is  of 


Distil- 
leries. 


Dairies. 


1  Of.  Zt.  Phys.  Chem.  49,  3,  322. 


STATE   OF  MATTEK  31 

colloidal  nature  in  its  most  important  constituents ; 
besides  the  crystalloidal  water,  which  can  be  present  up 
to  90  per  cent.,  inorganic  salts  and  the  crystalloidal 
milk  sugar,  the  substances  present  in  the  colloidal 
state  are  proteins,  especially  casein,  with  some 
albumins  and  fats. 

In  butter-making  the  fats  and  the  milk  are  utilised, 
while  by  coagulation  of  the  casein  by  acids  or  by  a 
ferment,  by  addition  of  rennet,  curds  are  obtained, 
which  are  further  worked  up  into  cheese. 

The  elements  of  artificial  butter  or  margarine  also  are 
largely  substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  animal  fats 
and  plant  oils. 

Finally,  numerous  industries,  washing  and  ironing, 
book-binding,  use  substances  in  the  colloidal  state, 
especially  carbohydrates,  potato  starch,  wheat  starch,  etc. 

Dextrin,  which  is  obtained  by  heating  starch,  dry  or 
treated  with  a  small  quantity  of  acid,  is  likewise 
applicable  in  many  industries  for  finishing  fabrics, 
glazing  paper,  etc. 

This  short  glance  over  the  regions  of  technology  and  Industry, 
industry  should  make  the  significance  of  substances  in 
the  colloidal  state  in  this  connection  sufficiently  clear ; 
they  appear  to  be  almost  more  valuable  for  us  and  our 
civilisation,  than  those  in  the  crystalloidal  state; 
technology  and  practice  have  earlier  recognised  and 
utilised  this  value  than  chemical,  physical  and  physio- 
logical science,  which  have  only  recently  given  their  atten- 
tion to  the  phenomena  of  matter  in  the  colloidal  state. 

It  is  to  be  hoped  now7  that  light  will  fall  from 
the  most  different  sides  on  these  phenomena,  still 
enshrouded  in  darkness ;  at  present  a  large  number 
of  investigators  are  occupied  in  this  field ;  it  is  to  be 
desired  that  through  this  work,  and  through  a  common 
activity  of  technology  and  science,  significant  usefulness 
and  advantage  will  be  experienced. 


The  significance  in  nature  of  substances  in  the  col-  Nature 
loidal   state   has   hitherto   not   received   the   attention 


32 


COLLOIDAL   AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 


Mine- 
ralogy 
and 
Geology. 


Petrificfi- 
tions. 


which  it  deserves.  It  is  precisely  here  that  mineralo- 
gists and  geologists  have  turned  their  interest  almost 
exclusively  to  bodies  in  the  crystalloidal  and  amorphous 
states. 

Yet  the  presence  of  colloidal  substances  could  be 
easily  recognised ;  they  occur  in  many  disintegrations, 
e.g.,  in  those  of  granitic  rocks  or  felspars ;  in  the 
formation  of  trass  in  the  Nette  and  Brohl  Valleys  in  the 
Ehine  district,  in  the  ries  in  "Wiirtemberg  and  in  the 
Italian  puzzuolane ;  the  resulting  colloidal  substances 
are  the  hydroxides  of  silicon,  aluminium  and  iron. 

In  a  weathering  reaction  on  a  large  scale  in  an  earlier 
period  of  the  earth's  history  silicic  acid  was  likewise 
deposited,  presumably  mostly  in  the  colloidal  form.  In 
consequence  of  lowering  of  temperature,  the  system 
previously  in  equilibrium,  silicate  and  carbon-dioxide, 
was  disturbed,  so  that  this  change  must  follow,  and  in 
the  direction  that  carbon-dioxide  was  bound,  carbonate 
was  formed,  while  silicic  acid  separated.  This  reaction 
also  occurs  now,  though  with  significantly  smaller 
velocity,  since  the  quantity  of  carbon-dioxide  in  the  air 
is  very  much  diminished.  But  at  that  time  carbon- 
dioxide  "corroded"  granitic  rocks. 

Further,  spathic  iron  ore  undergoes  a  process  of 
weathering,  in  which  ferric  hydroxide,  a  substance  in 
the  colloidal  state,  finally  remains;  the  ferrous  car- 
bonate is  decomposed  by  the  action  of  water,  when  the 
hydrogen  ions  of  the  water  and  the  carbonic  acid  ions 
combine  to  form  undissociated  carbonic  acid,  and  ferrous 
oxide  remains,  which  is  then  further  transformed  to 
ferric  oxide  and  hydroxide.  The  zeolites,  hydrated 
sodium  aluminium  silicates,  also  furnish  substances  in 
the  colloidal  state  on  weathering,  the  hydroxides  of 
aluminium  and  silicon. 

Further,  probably  these  and  other  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state,  e.g.,  calcium  carbonate,  have  given  rise 
to  petrifications  in  this  form. 

Weighty  examples  of  substances  in  the  gel  state  in 
nature  are  bauxite,  the  opal  with  its  coloured  varieties, 
psilomelane,  brown  iron  ore  and  others  ;  not  only  single 


STATE   OF  MATTER  33 

minerals,  but  also  mixtures  of  gels  occur  in  the 
coagulated  state.  The  opal  also  occurs  in  nature  in 
the  gelatinous  state,  likewise  arsenical  iron  ore. 

The  formation  of  mud  depends  on  the  action  of  very  Formation 
finely  divided  small  particles,  with  the  aid  of  substances  of  Mud- 
in    the   colloidal    state,    essentially   the   hydroxides  of 
silicon,    aluminium    and   iron,    with    organic    colloids 
resulting  from  plant  and  animal  remains. 

Firstly,  all  the  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  are 
precipitated  and  deposited  at  suitable  places.  The 
plasticity  of  river  or  sea  mud  is  due  to  these  sub- 
stances ;  and  it  was  this  property  which  caused  men  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  their  culture  to  apply  it  in  the 
manufacture  of  vessels,  and  later  to  dry  and  burn 
them. 

By  the  above  described  formation  of  deltas  the 
present  mud  deposits  at  the  mouth  of  smaller  and 
larger  rivers  are  to  be  explained. 

Colloidal  substances,  and  indeed,  again,  the  hydroxides 
of  silicon,  aluminium  and  iron,  and  those  of  an  organic 
nature,  have  a  much  greater  value  from  the  point  of 
view  of  agricultural  chemistry  and  plant  physiology 
than  has  been  hitherto  assumed.1 

They  have  arisen  in  the  decomposition  of  granitic  Agricul- 
rocks,  of  felspars.  These  double  silicates  undergo ture- 
hydrolysis  and  suffer  the  action  of  elements  of  the 
atmosphere,  carbon- dioxide  of  the  air  and  moisture, 
also  the  action  of  acids  in  soil,  which  break  up  the 
living  plant  roots  and  decaying  plants  and  form  from 
them  humus  substances  and  humic  acids;  in  these 
processes  colloidal  silicon  hydroxide,  aluminium 
hydroxide,  and  iron  hydroxide  are  formed,  while  the 
alkali  which  is  simultaneously  split  off  is  transformed 
into  carbonate. 

Starting  from  a  felspar,  orthoclase,  which  in  its 
purest  form  possesses  the  composition  of  a  double 
silicate,  the  process  of  decomposition  which  leads  to 

i  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  Landwirtschaftliche  Jahrbiicher,  473  (1907), 
273  (1909),  369  (1910). 

C.M.  D 


34  COLLOIDAL  AND   CRYSTALLOIDAL 

substances  in  the  colloidal  state  depends  on  the  solu- 
tion of  the  soluble  alkali  silicate  by  water,  and  by 
its  hydrolysing  action  the  hydroxides  of  silicon  and 
aluminium  are  separated  in  a  colloidal  form. 

But  if  these  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  are 
continually  washed  by  water,  pure  aluminium  silicate 
(kaolin)  frequently  remains,  which  is  no  longer  decom- 
posed by  water,  or  at  least  only  slightly  so ;  thus 
kaolin  answers  in  composition  to  the  chemical  formula 
2Si02,Al20332H20,  which  is  valueless  from  an  agricul- 
tural chemical  point  of  view,  but  is  of  high  technical 
significance. 

Soils  containing  clay  are  accordingly  those  which 
form  these  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  in  contact 
with  water  ;  these  determine  the  slipperiness  of  the 
soil,  they  increase  the  firmness  of  the  roots  of  many 
plants,  and  are  determinative  for  the  capacity  of 
absorbing  water  and  for  permeability.1 

The  more  the  soil  contains  such  colloidal  substances, 
the  more  of  these  which  are  present  in  a  deposited 
and  coagulated  state,  the  greater  is  the  degree  of  its 
impermeability  to  water ;  the  smaller  the  clay  content, 
the  less  marked  is  the  capacity  of  taking  up  water ; 
the  most  permeable  soil  is  that  free  from  clay  and  rich 
in  sand. 

The  view  expressed  by  E.  Wollny2  and  given  in  the 
text-book  of  A.  Meyer,3  "  that  one  and  the  same  clayey 
soil  will  be  more  impermeable,  the  closer  its  particles 
touch  one  another,  and  that  the  impermeability  can  be 
expressed  as  a  resistance  to  filtration  increased  infinitely 
in  consequence  of  the  surfaces  closely  touching  and 
rubbing  against  one  another,"  can  be  designated  as 
superficial  and  erroneous ;  it  does  not  touch  the  true 
cause  of  impermeability,  for  soils  whose  particles  are 
closely  compressed  can  nevertheless  be  permeable,  i.e., 
compressed  quartz  ! 

1  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  Zt.  "  Aus  der  Natur."     Colloidal  substances  in 
Nature. 

2  Forschungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Agrikulturphysik,  1891. 
»  Agrikulturchemie,  1902,  Bd.  II.  1,  Abt, 


STATE   OF  MATTER  35 

The  degree  of  water  absorption  depends  on  the 
temperature  :  the  absorption  of  water  following  on 
swelling  depends  on  a  phenomenon  of  contraction,  which 
is  connected  with  evolution  of  heat.  According  to 
the  Maupertuis-van't  Hoff  law  (which  states  that 
"  on  cooling,  processes  take  place  proceeding  with  the 
evolution  of  heat,  while  on  warming,  reactions  follow 
which  cause  a  cooling  "  ;  if  cooling  sets  in,  processes 
occur  which  involve  heat,  i.e.,  greater  absorption  of 
water,  while  on  rise  of  temperature  the  capacity  of 
absorbing  water  is  diminished,  and  on  more  vigorous 
warming  shrinking  occurs. 

Sunbeams,  rain  and  wind,  and  the  colloidal  substances 
of  soil  stand  in  the  most  intimate  relationships. 

Soils  containing  clay  are  semi-permeable  in  con- 
sequence of  their  content  in  colloidal  substances  ;  they 
permit  the  passage  of  crystalloidal  dissolved  substances, 
such  as  sodium  chloride,  sulphates,  etc.,  with  quite 
few  exceptions,  but  not  those  which  are  colloidally 
dissolved. 

These  facts  are  of  great  significance  for  the  growth 
of  plants  ;  for  all  food  salts  are  of  crystalloidal  nature 
as  far  as  is  known  at  present,  with  one  exception, 
so  thcrit  they  diffuse  without  hindrance  through  the 
colloidal  layers  of  the  soil.  The  one  exception  is  that 
tobacco  plants  use  an  alkali  silicate  as  a  cultural  liquid, 
i.e.,  a  substance  in  the  colloidal  state. 

The  colloidal  substances  in  soils  containing  clay  have  Manuring. 
finally  the  power  of  adsorbing  and  retaining  certain 
kinds  of  substances  ;  soils  containing  clay  adsorb  dye- 
stuffs  of  complicated  constitution,  the  dyestuffs  and 
also  the  colloidal  constituents  of  urine  and  fcecal  matter, 
and  therefore  essentially  influence  manuring. 

The  cause  of  this  adsorption  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
structure  of  the  substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  which 
is  to  be  considered  as  a  mesh  structure,  a  continuous 
porous  framework. 

Hence    Meyer's     explanation1    "  that    clays    exert 


1  .Agrikulturchemie,  Bd.  II.  Abt.  1. 

D 


36  COLLOIDAL  AND   CEYSTALLOIDAL 

adsorption  since  they  possess  no  definite  capacity  of 
saturation  for  bases  on  account  of  the  double  nature 
of  alumina  "  does  not  appear  sufficient. 

Soils  containing  clay  only  adsorb  C03"  and  HC03' 
ions  from  carbonates,  B^O?"  completely  from  borates, 
and  P(V"  ions  partially  from  phosphates,  as  far  as,  and 
indeed  in  proportion  as,  they  are  able  to  form  colloidal 
substances  in  contact  with  water. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that,  according  to  recent 
observations,  boric  acid  ions  act  as  "catalytic 
manures " ;  applied  in  the  form  of  boric  acid  they 
cause  a  marked  increase  in  the  dry  weight  of 
plants. 

In  the  last  processes  an  exchange  of  the  kathodic 
elements  occurs  mutually  ;  according  to  the  law  of 
equivalence  the  calcium  and  sodium  in  the  silicates  can 
be  substituted  by  magnesium  and  potassium.  The 
significance  of  these  substitutions,  especially  the 
replacement  of  sodium  by  potassium,  from  a  plant- 
physiological  point  of  view  is  made  clear  in  the  most 
significant  way,  because  the  potassium  salts  are  much 
more  valuable  for  the  culture  of  plants  than  the 
sodium  salts,  and  the  latter  are  completely  unnecessary 
for  a  whole  number  of  growths,  while  potassium  salts 
cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Perhaps  the  above  described 
adsorption  is  only  a  phenomenon  accompanying  this 
exchange. 

These  processes  are  also  of  high  significance  for  the 
question  of  lime  and  magnesia  manuring,  since  the 
ratio  between  lime  and  magnesia  must  be  considered 
in  manuring,  because  too  great  a  quantity  of  magnesia 
diminishes  the  highest  yield,  as  too  strong  lime 
manuring  acts  injuriously. 

The  colloidal  substances  in  soils  containing  clay  also 
influence  the  solubility  of  the  salts  contained  in  them. 
This  point  is  of  significance  in  manuring  with 
gypsum. 

Manurial  experiments  with  gypsum,  which  have 
remained  without  result,  since,  in  consequence  of  the 
condition  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  the  calcium  salts 


STATE   OF   MATTER  37 

necessary  for  the  physiological  activity  of  the  plant 
world  could  not  be  added,  should  largely  be  explained 
by  a  lack  of  consideration  of  this  point. 

When  swampy   soils   completely  adsorb  P(V"  ions,  Swampy 
this  process  depends  on  the  presence  of  substances  in  Soils- 
the   colloidal    state,    which   are   formed    by    decaying 
plants. 

The  velocity  of  adsorption  for  all  these  substances 
can  be  catalytically  accelerated  by  the  presence  of 
others  ;  thus  the  oxidation,  by  absorption  of  oxygen 
from  the  air,  of  ferrous  salts  contained  in  arable  soils, 
is  energetically  accelerated  in  presence  of  water  or  water 
vapour. 

Finally,  these  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  hinder  Efflores- 
the    efflorescence   and  deposition    of  salts    soluble   in cence- 
water.     In  consequence  of  their  structure,  which  is  to 
be  considered  a  mesh  system,  narrow-celled  and   widely 
branched,    they    can    retain    water  and  salts  dissolved 
therein  longer  than  amorphous  and  crystalloidal  bodies 
can  do  so. 

Dissolved  salts  wander  inwards  with  the  moisture 
from  the  surface  of  arable  soil,  and  the  layers  next 
below,  into  the  deeper  lying  layers  where  they  can  still 
be  reached  by  the  deeper  roots  of  the  plants. 

The  position  is  quite  otherwise  when  the  soil  is 
practically  free  from  substances  in  the  colloidal  state, 
when  it  is  formed  of  sterile  material,  amorphous  and 
crystalloidal  substances  only,  sand,  etc.,  on  account  of 
its  small  depth  and  complete  drying.  This  is  the  case, 
for  example,  in  many  parts  of  Egypt,  and  in  Namaland 
in  German  West  Africa. 

Then  the  soluble  salts  are  not  carried  deep  down, 
but  rise  to  the  surface  with  the  water  which  evapo- 
rates, and  crystallise  out.  In  Namaland  these  efflores- 
cences consist  of  magnesium  sulphate,  soda,  Glauber's 
salt  and  other  alkali  salts,  and  in  certain  parts  of 
Egypt  these  deposits  were  earlier  so  extensive,  on 
account  of  the  very  rapid  evaporation  of  water,  that 
they  could  be  used  for  obtaining  soda. 

Necessary  as  are   these  water  soluble  salts  for  the 


38  COLLOIDAL  AND  CEYSTALLOIDAL 

culture  of  plants,  they  would  be  quite  valueless  from 
a  physiological  point  of  view  if  substances  in  the 
colloidal  state  were  not  simultaneously  present  with 
them  in  arable  soil,  which  hinder  them  from  efflorescing  ; 
without  these  our  fields  would  wear  shimmering  white, 
instead  of  green  garments,  which  would  be  caused  by 
these  deposits. 

On  the  waste  declivities  which  surround  the  manu- 
factories at  Stassfurt,  which,  free  from  colloidal  sub- 
stances consist  largely  of  amorphous  substances,  by  the 
action  of  dry  and  hot  air  white  efflorescences  of  soluble 
salts  appear,  shining  like  freshly  fallen  snow,  only  to 
disappear  again  with  the  next  rain. 

If  now  all  these  processes,  the  formation  of  substances 
in  the  colloidal  state,  their  coagulation  and  eventual 
solution,  adsorption,  do  not  proceed  in  arable  soil  with 
the  exactness  and  completeness  with  which  experiments 
take  place  in  the  laboratory,  yet  they  occur  in  the  same 
sense  and  in  the  same  direction  in  greater  or  smaller 
velocity,  sometimes  accelerated,  sometimes  retarded  by 
other  influences,  such  as  temperature  change,  solar 
radiation,  etc. 

Zoology.  The  significance  of  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  is 
not  yet  exhausted ;  interesting  relationships  are  shown 
from  a  zoological  point  of  view. 

Manifestly  worms  can  move  better  in  moist  soils 
containing  colloids  than  in  amorphous  and  crystalloidal 
soils ;  but  by  their  activity  they  contribute  to  the 
loosening  of  the  soil  and  to  its  greater  fruitfulness.1 

But  also  soils  rich  in  colloids  afford  a  more  certain 
existence  than  sterile  ones  to  other  members  of  the 
small  animal  world,  on  account  of  their  capacity  of 
absorbing  soluble  salts  and  retaining  them  longer. 

Summarising  :  Colloidal  substances  determine  the 
degree  of  permeability  for  water,  they  have  the  property 
of  semi-permeability,  they  permit  the  diffusion  of  the 
colloidal  food  salts  of  plants,  they  retain  the  colloidal 

1  Darwin,  "  The  formation  of  vegetable  mould  by  the  activity  of 
worms." 


STATE   OF   MATTER,  39 

substances  and  colouring  matters  of ,  urine  and  faecal 
matter,  they  enrich  the  soil  with  carbonic  acid  and 
phosphoric  acid  ions  by  adsorption,  they  thereby  simul- 
taneously render  possible  the  exchange  of  the  alkaline 
earths  in  silicates  with  the  alkalies  in  solution,  they 
influence  the  solubility  of  salts  contained  in  and  added 
to  arable  soil,  and  with  all  these  processes  they  deter- 
mine manuring;  thus  the  conclusion  is  established 
that  soils  containing  colloids  are  the  most 
fruitful ! 

In  the  formation  of  wood  a  colloidal  chemical  process  Forestry. 
can  be  recognised,  principally  taking  place  in  two  stages, 
with   which  some  crystalloidal  chemical  reactions  are 
still  connected.1 

Cellulose  is  first  formed  in  the  youngest  plant  struc- 
tures as  a  chemically  indifferent  surface-  or  framework- 
body,  which  in  the  tissue  and  fibrous  structures 
possesses  a  very  great  surface. 

A  thickening  and  wood-formation  of  this  surface- 
body  then  occurs  by  adsorption  and  skin-formation  from 
the  colloidal  procambial  bodies  of  the  cambial  fluid. 

Connected  with  this  there  are  chemical  effects  and 
reactions  in  the  "  swollen,"  perhaps  partially  hydro- 
lysed,  adsorpates ;  ester-formation  and  other  condensa- 
tions are  examples. 

Thus,  according  to  the  assumptions  of  general  and 
selective  adsorption  and  gel  formation,  lignin  is  a 
variable  mixture  of  colloids  deposited  from  the  juices, 
especially  the  cambial  fluid,  of  which  part  is  reversibly, 
another  part  irreversibly,  linked  with  the  cellulose ; 
a  chemical  combination  is  probable  only  as  a  subsidiary 
effect.  This  is  the  role  of  the  important  wood-forming 

sap. 

***** 

At  a  certain  period  of  the  earth's  history,  which 
probably  followed  that  in  which,  according  to  the 

i  Cf.  H.  Wislicenus,  Zt.  f.  Chem.  u.  Ind.  der  Roll.  0,  1,  1910. 
Colloidal  chemical  processes  in  the  formation  of  wood,  and  the 
material  nature  of  wood  and  lignin. 


40  COLLOIDAL  AND   CEYSTALLOIDAL 

cosmological  gas  theory  of  Kant-Lamarck,  all  elements 
were  present  as  such  in  the  gaseous  state  of  aggregation, 
presumably  matter  occurred  frequently  in  the  colloidal 
state ;  since  this  is  simultaneously  connected  with 
much  smaller  reaction-capacity  than  is  the  case  with 
crystalloidal  substances,  the  periods  of  change  would  be 
of  much  longer  duration.1 

Liquid  There  are  certain  cases  of  substances  hitherto  only 

Crystals.  fcnown  jn  the  crystalline  form,  to  the  present  about 
thirty,  in  which  it  has  been  found  possible  to  bring 
about  for  long  periods  and  to  observe  a  state  identical 
with  the  colloidal,  before  they  are  transformed  into  the 
stable  crystalline  form ;  they  show  the  essential  dis- 
tinctions of  such  a  state.  These  are  the  so-called 
liquid  crystals,  silver  iodide  above  146°,  ammo- 
nium oleate,  cholesteryl  benzoate,  p.-azoxy-phenetol, 
p.-azoxy-cinnamic  ethyl  ester,  azoxy-brom-cinnamic 
ester,  p.  -  anisol  -  p.  -  anisidine,  cholesteryl  caprate, 
p.-anisol-p.-amido-acetophenone,  etc. 

According  to  0.  Lehmaun2  these  complicated  organic 
compounds,  at  temperatures  which  approach  the  melt- 
ing-point, especially  on  addition  of  solvents,  show  a 
gelatinous  softening  of  the  microscopic  particles  with 
a  rounding  of  the  edges,  and,  finally,  a  liquefaction 
assuming  the  drop  form. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  there  are  some  properties 
common  to  crystals  in  this  state  and  to  colloids  them- 
selves. 

It  is  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  which,  in  oppo- 
sition to  crystalloids,  show  a  smaller  or  greater  capacity 
for  plasticity.3 

But  a  certain  degree  of  plasticity  has  been  observed 
in  the  so-called  liquid  crystals.4 

Further,  substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  such  as 
the  hydroxides  of  silicon,  aluminium  and  iron,  can 

1  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  Zt.  f.  Chem.  u.  Ind.  d.  Roll.  1,  7  (1907). 

2  Annal.  d.  Physik.  728,  1905  ;  22,  1906. 

3  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  Zt.  anor<?.  Chem.  31,  158,  1902.   The  plasticity  of 
clay.     JMd.,  41,  325,  1904.     The  decomposition  of  clay. 

4  Physikal.  Zt.  7,  21,  1906. 


STATE   OF   MATTEE  41 

absorb  small  amorpbous  or  crystalloidal  substances,  as 
clays  wbicli  form  these  colloidal  substances  in  contact 
with  water,1  can  absorb  the  so-called  thinners. 

This  capacity  of  absorbing  foreign  substances  has 
also  been  observed  in  the  so-called  liquid  crystals. 

The  characteristic  property  of  colloidal  substances  is, 
however,  their  great  power  of  adsorption  for  dyestuffs.2 

This  phenomenon  has  also  been  observed  by  0. 
Lehmann  3  in  liquid  crystals.  Liquid  crystals  cover  them- 
selves with  a  yellow  layer  which  is  far  darker  in  colour 
than  the  solution  itself,  just  as  if  the  liquid  crystals 
attract  the  dyestuff  to  themselves  from  the  solution 
with  considerable  force  by  adsorption  and  fix  it  on 
their  surfaces. 

A  state  has  accordingly  been  observed  in  some  groups 
of  crystals  for  long  periods,  which  presumably  all 
crystallising  bodies  undergo,  only  with  the  difference 
that  this  state,  lasting  for  a  very  short  time,  cannot 
usually  be  observed  even  with  the  most  powerful  micro- 
scope ;  the  crystalloidal  state  is  preceded  by  a  condition 
in  which  the  smallest  particles,  like  those  of  sub- 
stances in  the  colloidal  state,  are  finely  suspended  in 
the  solution ;  the  crystal  is  then  built  up  on  these. 

So  "  the  two  different  worlds  "  of  substances  in  the 
colloidal  and  crystalloidal  state,  as  Graham  designated 
them,  are  under  certain  conditions  of  identical  nature. 

From  these  observations  and  conclusions  the  follow- 
ing noteworthy  analogy  can  be  drawn :  the  evolution, 
through  which  the  single  individual  substance  now 
passes  very  rapidly  in  its .  formation  each  time,  and 
which  leads  from  the  colloidal  to  the  amorphous  or 
crystalloidal  state,  in  an  earlier  period  of  the  earth's 
history,  has  led  to  the  formation  of  that  portion  of 
Matter  in  the  amorphous  or  crystalloidal  form,  though 
at  a  much  slower  speed. 

The   rapidly   completed     origination    of     a    crystal 

1  Cf.  P.  Bohland,  "  Die  Tone."     Publisher  :  A.  Hartleben,  Vienna, 
1909. 

2  Cf.  P.  Rohland,  ibid. 

3  Physikal.  Zt.  11,  45,  1910. 


42  COLLOIDAL  AND  CEYSTALLOIDAL 

individual  is  to  be  considered  as  a  recapitulation  of  the 
slower  proceeding  formation  of  this  class  of  Matter. 
Biogenetic  This  peculiarity  recalls  the  principle  which  is  desig- 
nated as  the  biogenetic  law  of  ontogeny  and  phylogeny  ; 
according  to  it  the  embryo  undergoes  the  same  evolu- 
tion, but  at  a  more  rapid  velocity,  which  has  been 
manifested  during  long  periods  by  the  evolution  of  the 
human  race. 

Thus  in  inorganic  and  organic  nature  there  is  a 
process  which  runs  parallel  with  one  in  organised 
nature. 

It  is  not  an  unwarrantable  assumption  that  since 
almost  every  substance  under  suitable  conditions,  and 
with  appropriate  methods,  can  be  transformed  into  the 
colloidal  state,  the  primary  stage  in  the  essential  parts 
of  the  earth's  history  was  not  the  crystalloidal,  but  the 
colloidal ;  the  secondary  is  the  amorphous  and  crystal- 
loidal, which  latter  forms  the  summit  in  the  formal 
development  of  matter.  The  colloidal,  the  amorphous, 
the  crystalloidal  state  of  matter  signifies  a  rise  in  the 
form,  but  materially  the  colloidal  stands  far  higher. 
Physio-  In  it  occur,  for  the  most  part,  plants  and  animals  ; 

l°gy-  in  consequence  of  its  cell  and  honeycomb  structure  it 
can  be  represented  as  the  transition  stage  between 
inorganic,  organic  and  organised  nature ;  inorganic 
substances  have  already  been  prepared,  which  are 
similar  to  the  proteins.1 

The  colloidal  state  is  generally  characteristic  for 
physiological  processes,  e.g.,  for  those  in  protoplasm, 
while  substances  in  the  crystalloidal  state  only  possess 
subsidiary  significance  ;  protoplasm  represents  a  colloidal 
and  crystalloidal  solution  of  complicated  structure 
which,  by  addition  and  concentration  change  of  electro- 
lytes, suffers  changes  in  constitution.  For  such  pro- 
cesses, however,  the  above  described  slowness  and 
incapacity  of  reaction  of  crystalloidal  substances,  which 
have  been  absorbed  by  those  in  the  colloidal  state,  is 
of  great  importance ;  reactions  can  here  fail  which 

Dr.  B.  Szilard,  "  Beitrage  zur  allgemeineii  Kolloidchemie." 


STATE   OF   MATTER  43 

otherwise  occur  between  substances  in  the  crystalloidal 
state,  while  others  perhaps  take  place  which  cannot  be 
realised  under  ordinary  conditions. 

Thus  perhaps  the  account  of  the  rhodian  genius, 
Alexander  von  Humboldt,1  may  be  taken  in  another 
sense. 

As  soon  as  the  earthward  turned  torch  of  genius 
smoulders  out,  the  butterfly  flies  upwards,  the  head  of 
the  genius  sinks,  young  men  and  maidens  gladly 
stretch  out  their  hands,  to  follow  their  social  instincts. 

Without  poetic  language  this  means :  As  soon  as 
what  is  called  "Life  "  has  vanished  from  matter  in  the 
colloidal  state,  the  normal  reactions  again  set  in,  which 
are  known  between  substances  in  the  crystalloidal  state. 

The  widest  outlooks  for  the  most  different  branches  Medicine. 
of  medicine — therapy,  pathology,  balneology — open  out 
in  this  field. 

Thus,  for  example,  the  salts  in  urine  acquire  an  in- 
creased solubility  partially  through  colloidal  admixtures, 
and  these  colloidal  substances  have  an  essential  influence 
on  the  origination  of  sediment  or  on  the  formation  of 
urinary  calculi. 

Now  the  effect  exerted  by  the  urine  colloid  on  the 
solubility  of  the  salts  depends  on  the  prevailing  degree 
of  stability  of  the  colloid ;  it  remains  to  be  examined 
whether,  and  to  what  degree,  the  beneficial  action  of 
certain  mineral  waters  in  calcular  diseases  is  connected 
with  the  change  in  the  urinary  solubility  by  colloidal 
influence.  It  also  remains  to  investigate,  in  what  way 
and  to  what  extent,  a  balneological  therapy  can  influence 
the  growth  of  urinary  calculi,  that  is  to  say,  the  com- 
bined growth  of  colloidal  and  crystalloidal  urinary 
substances.2 

It  is  also  worth  considering  in  what  way  electrolytes 
or  ions  influence  the  thickening  or  liquefying  of  the 
products  of  separation  in  the  intestine,  which  are 
likewise  of  colloidal  nature.  Analogous  processes  are  not 


1  "  Ansichten  der  Natur."  Ed.  I. 

*  Of.  Zt.  f.  Chem.  u.  Ind.  der  Koll.  5,  1,  1909. 


44  COLLOIDAL  AND   CEYSTALLOIDAL 

excluded  here  in  which,  like  those  occurring  in  clays, 
definite  kinds  of  ions  would  cause  coagulation  and 
thickening,  while  others,  again,  would  hinder  this,  and 
thus  cause  liquefaction  ;  therapeutic  means  might  then 
be  taken  on  these  lines. 

The  liquefying  action  of  the  SO^"  ions  in  magnesium 
and  sodium  sulphates  should  be  ascribed  to  the  property 
of  these  salts  of  attracting  water. 

Animal  spermatozoa  and  ova,  which  possess  the  most 
important  life  functions,  occur  in  the  colloidal  state; 
only  in  it,  not  in  the  crystalloidal,  is  possible  that 
mutual  power  of  permeation  which  is  so  wonderful  in 
the  reproductive  processes. 

The  transference  of  the  properties  of  the  male  and 
female  individual  to  the  embryo  only  appears  possible 
and  imaginable  when  it  takes  place  in  this  peculiar  finely 
divided  colloidal  state  of  matter.  Whether  spermatozoa 
and  ova  in  the  colloidal  state  are  here  considered  almost 
microscopically  small  or  as  large  as  a  house  is  all  one, 
objectively  considered. 

A  parallel  between  the  combination  of  the  colloids  of 
animal  ova  and  the  individual  inorganic  and  organic 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state  is  found  in  the  follow- 
ing :  the  transformation  of  such  a  colloid,  i.e.,  a  metal 
sulphide  sol  or  a  casein  solution,  into  the  coagulated 
state  can  be  caused  by  addition  of  electrolyte. 

But  recent  observations  have  shown  that  the  develop- 
ment of  animal  ova,  e.g.,  of  sea  urchins,  can  be  "artifi- 
cially "  caused  by  addition  of  an  electrolyte  (artificial 
parthogenesis). 

***** 

"  Mother  of  the  ^Eneads,  thou  womb  of  men  and 
gods,  Venus,  0  thou,  who  pourest  down  cheerful 
brightness  under  the  moving  lights  on  heaven, 
on  the  navigated  sea  and  the  fruit-bearing  earth  ; 
for  all  living  existence  is  generated  by  thee  to 
gaze  on  the  rays  of  the  sun  .  .  .  For  thou 
alone  rulest  the  Nature  of  Things  ;  without  thee 
nothing  comes  forth  from  the  divine  gate  of 

light"- 


STATE   OF   MATTEE  45 


— thus  Lucretius  Carus  begins  his  poem 
OD  "  The  Nature  of  Things." 

Our  observations  and  considerations  on  the  colloidal  Genera- 
and  ciystalloidal  states  of  matter  lead  to  another  supposi- tion- 
tion  about  the  "  generation  of  living  matter." 

If  on  our  planet  the  transformation  from  inorganic- 
organic  to  organised,  from  lifeless  to  living,  has  princi- 
pally occurred  in  the  smallest  shapes  of  the  naked 
protoplasm,  presumably  this  first  state  of  birth  was  in 
the  colloidal  medium. 

Organic  colloidal  compounds  serve  as  the  foundation 
for  the  formation  of  the  first  simplest  organised  forms ; 
their  structural  parts,  the  different  albumins,  caseins, 
carbohydrates,  only  occur  in  nature  in  the  colloidal  state. 

We  are  not  only  dealing  here  with  the  arrangement  of 
the  atoms  and  molecules  and  with  the  origination  of  cer- 
tain movements,  as  represented  by  du  Bois-Kaymond,1 
but  we  must  especially  consider  that  the  state,  in  which 
the  single  inorganic  and  organic  compounds  occurred, 
was  of  the  greatest  significance  for  the  origin  of  life; 
this  state  was  the  colloidal. 

We  must  also  add  that  very  probably  catalytic  pheno- 
mena should  be  considered  in  this  connection.  For 
positive  catalysers  are  invariably  active,  as  observation 
now  shows,  where  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  take 
place,  which  are  still  shrouded  in  obscurity;  ferments 
and  enzymes,  on  the  other  hand,  which  are  also  of 
colloidal  nature,  are  known  in  physiological  processes 
precisely  as  positive  catalysers. 

Probably  the   picture  which  has   been   sketched  of  Autogeny 
spontaneous  or  equivocal  generation  is  erroneous  in  its  p"asrno. 
essential  parts,  as  it  does  not  correspond  to  the  actual  geny. 
phenomena  which  once  occurred.     Thus  the  distinction 
between  autogeny,  the  formation  of  a  simplest  organised 
individual  from  an  inorganic  mother-liquid  or  from  in- 
organic substances,  and  plasmogeny,  the  formation  of 
an  organism  from  an  organic  mother-liquid  or  organic 
matter  already  formed  from  inorganic  substances,  may 
draw  us  from  the  right  path. 

1  Die  sieben  Weltratsel,  1880. 


46  COLLOIDAL  AND   CKYSTALLOIDAL 

This  is  much  more  likely  to  lead  to  the  colloidal  state 
of  matter,  in  which  both  inorganic  and  organic  substances 
are  united. 

The  conception  must  now  be  altered,  in  that  from 
a  complex  of  inorganic  or  organic  substance,  one  has 
resulted,  a  naked  cell  or  a  monad. 

It  is  much  more  likely  that,  from  the  colloidal  state 
of  the  combined  inorganic  and  organic  matter,  an  inter- 
mediate product  was  evolved  under  suitable  conditions, 
which  was  yet  partially  inorganic-organic,  partially 
already  organised. 

Struggle         But   this   intermediate    stage   has   perished    in   the 

*?r.  "  struggle  for  existence,"  since  its  conditions  of  life  were 

e'  extremely  unfavourable ;    the  now  existing  permanent 

forms,    the   simplest  organisms,  such    as   the   monad, 

have  developed  from  it. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Wohler's  urea  synthesis  (1828), 
on  which  too  great  hopes  were  once  based  with  reference 
to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  life,  was  limited  to  a 
substance  in  the  crystalloidal  state,  not  to  one  of  the 
substances  in  the  colloidal  state,  so  important  for  the 
phenomena  of  life.  In  consequence  of  this  the  hopes 
based  on  this  synthesis  have  not  been  fulfilled. 

Even  if  matter  in  the  colloidal  state,  such  as  protein, 
could  be  artificially  prepared  synthetically,  which  might 
come  about  according  to  E.  Fischer's  experiments  and 
results,  a  further  distance  would  have  to  be  traversed 
for  the  beginning  of  a  scientific  chemistry ;  at  present 
far  greater  advances  must  be  made ;  but  substances  in 
the  colloidal  state  must  form  the  starting-point  for  the 
formation  of  life. 

The  following  point  must  be  considered  in  this  con- 
nection :  possibly  the  first  combination  of  inorganic  and 
organic  substances  in  the  colloidal  state  to  an  organised 
body  occurs  between  particles  of  matter,  which  in  con- 
sequence of  their  enormous  minuteness  cannot  be  made 
visible  even  with  our  best  auxiliary,  the  ultra-microscope. 

This  view  cannot  be  discarded  at  once,  since  we  know 
similar  phenomena.  There  are  important  small  particles 
of  matter,  which  are  perceived  by  our  senses  exclusively 


STATE   OF  MATTER  47 

by  their  smell ;  they  cannot  he  weighed  with  the  finest 
analytical  balances,  even  those  which  have  been  recently 
constructed,  nor  can  they  be  made  visible  by  any  optical 
means.  Yet  the  existence  of  such  smallest  particles 
cannot  be  doubted. 

What  will  be  later  visible  with  the  aid  of  the  micro- 
scope is  again  reflected  in  the  process  of  generation  in 
a  later  stage,  in  which  a  naked  protoplasm,  a  monad, 
finally  a  cell  has  resulted  from  the  inorganic-organic- 
organised  intermediate  product  in  the  colloidal  state. 

These  suppositions  are  not  new,  they  have  been  sug- 
gested in  antiquity  in  quite  a  crude  form ;  they  appear 
here,  however,  in  a  much  more  precise  manner. 

The  old  Greek  natural  philosophers  held  the  view 
that  the  simpler  forms  of  life  originated  from  decaying 
hay,  decaying  dung,  etc.,  therefore  from  colloidal  media. 

But  these  very  facts  could  point  earlier  to  a  confirma- 
tion of  these  suppositions  which  was  yet  to  come. 

For  it  is  an  experience  repeatedly  confirmed,  that  in  Greek 
earlier  periods  of  human  history,  great  poets,  prophets  p^ural 
and  philosophers  have  expressed  presentiments,  supposi-  S0phy  and 
tions  and  approximations,  to  scientific  theories,  which  Modern 
were  first  recognised  very  much  later  as  scientific  dis-  Natural 
coveries  of  the  first  rank,  or  as  natural  laws,  which  have 
now  first  undergone  exact  experimental  proof. 

Thus  the  supposition  of  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus 
(500  B.C.),  that  the  bodies  then  considered  as  elements 
dissolve  in  a  fiery  universal  ether,  is  changed  into  the 
disaggregation  theory  of  Rutherford  and  Soddy,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  atoms  spontaneously  decompose  in 
stages  and  are  transformed  into  electrons,  the  bearers 
of  the  luminiferous  ether. 

The  supposition  of  Empedocles  of  Agrigent  (460  B.C.), 
according  to  which  first  plants,  then  the  animals,  re- 
sulted by  generation,  but  not  in  their  present  apparently 
suitable  and  harmonious  forms,  for  in  the  struggle  with 
the  forces  of  nature  those  remained  victors  which  were 
most  advantageously  formed,  and  therefore  most  capable 
of  life,  is  similar  to  the  evolution  theory  of  Lamarck 
and  Darwin,  in  which  these  suppositions  are  expressed 


48  COLLOIDAL  AND  CKYSTALLOIDAL  STATE 

in  a  more  precise  form,  their  more  intimate  causes  are 
discovered,  and  experimental  proofs  are  advanced. 
Monistic         But  this  spontaneous  generation,  which  appears  so 
and  closely  bound  up  with  the  colloidal  state  of  matter,  is 

Concep-0    *ke  bounty- stone  between  the  dtialistic  and  monistic 
tion  of  the  conception  of  the  universe  ;    neither   the  materialistic 
Universe,  view  nor  energetics  can  succeed  without  being  firmly 
based  here. 

Both  materialism  and  energetics  must  recognise 
generation  as  unlimitedly  necessary,  at  least  unless 
they  do  not  dispense  with  one  solid  foundation. 

The  dualistic  view  can  dispense  with  generation,  in 
that  it  starts  out  from  the  consideration  that  the  Divine 
Omnipotence  created  matter  in  different  states  and 
different  composition,  inorganic,  organic  and  organised 
matter ;  it  can  assume  a  particular  act  of  creation  for 
each  new  formation. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  dualistic  view  can  bring  the 
idea  of  generation  and  that  of  a  creating  Omnipotence 
in  agreement  by  assuming  a  single  act  of  creation  of 
matter,  in  which  already  the  germ  of  its  future  develop- 
ment was  so  implanted  that  from  it  inorganic,  organic 
and  organised  natr.7?  could  henceforth  develop  by  stages 
in  different  states  tiL  .hey  reached  fruition  in  the  origi- 
nation of  the  first  life. 

"  The  fearful  bell  rings,  and  penetrates  the  blackened 
walls  ;  the  uncertainty  of  earnest  expectation  can 
endure  no  longer,  the  darkness  already  grows 
light ;  already  it  glows  like  living  fire  in  the 
innermost  phial,  and  a  clear  bright  light,  like 
a  superb  carbuncle,  throws  a  flash  through  the 
darkness." 

But  even  he  who  is  most  skilled  in  the  reading  of 
the  future  cannot  say  to  what  extent  the  monistic  or 
dualistic  conception  should  be  embraced  —  even  if  a 
second  "  Wagner"  succeeded  in  " composing  "  organised 
living  matter  "  by  mixing  many  hundreds  of  substances" 
— whether  the  atoms  were  previously  "  animated  "  apart 
from  inorganic  matter,  or  whether,  and  how,  the  in- 
creased energies,  which  we  call  Life,  arose  in  dead  matter. 


AUTHOR    INDEX 


du  Bois-Eaymond,  45 
Bun  sen,  12 

von  Calcar,  11 
Chevreul,  12 

Daguerre,  2(S 
Darwin,  2,  38,  47 
Ditmar,  25 

Empedocles,  47 

Fischer,  46 

Graham,  2,  6,  11,  12,  41 

Haeckel,  3 
Heraclitus,  47 
Yan't  Hoff,  35 
von  Humboldt,  43 
Hyatt,  16 

Justin-Mueller,  24 

Kant,  39 
Koch,  29 

Lamarck,  39 
Lavoisier,  1 


Lehmann,  40,  41 
Liippo-Cramer,  28 
Lucretius,  45 

Maupertius,  35 
Meyer,  34,  35 
Mobius,  3 
Monier,  16 

Nobel,  27 

Ostwald,  W.,  13 
Ostwald,  Wo.,  9 

Paal,  7 
Perkin,  2 
Pfeffer,  6 

Eohland,  3,  10,  13,  14,  15,  16,  19, 

'22,  33,  34,  40,  41 
'.utberford,  47 

Schulze,  28 
Soddy,  47 
Szilard,  42 

Wislicenus,  39 
Wohler,  46 
Wollny,  34 


C.M. 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


ADHESION,  17 

Adhesives,  1 

Airship,  25,  26 

Albumin,  4,  6,  7,  8,  18,  23,  25,  30, 

31,45 

Albuminates,  8 
Alcohol,  3 

Aluminium  chloride,  10 
Aluminium  hydroxide,  9, 10, 12,15, 

16,  17,  18,  20,  32,  33,  34,  40 
Aluminium  silicate,  14,  32,  34 
Ammonium  sulphide,  13 
Agriculture,  1,  33 
Arrowroot,  29 
Arsenic  sulphide,  9 
Atoms,  15,  17,  45,  48 
Autogeny,  45 
Automobile,  25 

BACTERIA,  19,  29 
Bacteriology,  28,  29 
Baking,  29,  30 
Balneology,  43 
Barium  carbonate,  3 
Barium  sulphate,  10 
Bark,  25 
Bauxite,  32 
Beetroot,  23 
Benzopurpurin,  3 
Berberine,  18 
Boiling  point,  6,  21 
Bookbinding,  31 
Boric  acid,  36 
Breweries,  19 
Brewing,  30 
Bricks,  17 

CABLES,  26 

Calcium  carbonate,  9,  16,  28,  32 

Calcium  chloride,  8,  10 


Calcium  hydroxide,  16 

Camphor,  26 

Caramel,  3,  30 

Carbo-hydrates,  5,   19,  25,  29,  30, 

31,45 
Carbon,  5 

Carbonates,  3,  21,  22,  23,  32,  33 
Carbon-dioxide,  5,  13,  15,  16,  30, 

32,  33 

Carmine,  18 
Casein,    4,   6,    7,    8,    18,   30,    31, 

44,  45 
Catechu,  3 

Cells,  5,  11,  23,  29,  42,  46,  47 
Celluloid,  25,  26 
Cellulose,  26,  39 
Cement,  10,  13,  15,  16 
Charcoal,  9 
Cheese,  31 
Chlorides,  3 
Chlorophyll,  5 
Chromates,  3 
Clays,   1,  9,  10,  13,  15,  17,  18,  19, 

20,  21,  25,  30,  34,  35,  41 
Coagulation,  8,  9,  11,  12, 15,  16,  18, 

20,  21,  22,  31,  38,  44 
Cohesion,  17 
Collodion,  26,  27,  28 
Colloid,  24 

Colouring  matters,  18, 19,  24,  27,  39 
Concrete,  14,  16 
Copper  ferrocyanide,  3,  11 
Cotton,  31 
Curcuma,  18 
Curds,  31 

DAIRIES,  30 

Deltas,  33 

Dextrin,  1,  3,  18,  19,  25,  29,  30,  31 

Dextrose,  6,  30 


SUBJECT  INDEX. 


Dialyser,  2,  6 

Dialysis,  2,  11 

Diffusion,  6,  11,  18 

Distilleries,  30 

Dyeing,  1,  19,  23,  24,  25,  41 

EBONITE,  26 

Efflorescence,  37,  38 

Egypt,  37 

Electrolytes,  8,  10,  30,  42,  43,  44 

Electrons,  47 

Emulsin,  4 

Enzymes,  45 

Evolution,  41,  42 

FACTORIES,  18 
Fats,  18,  25,  31 
Felspar,  19,  32,  33 
Felting,  24 
Fermentation,  19,  29 
Ferments,  45 
Ferric  chloride,  10,  13 
Ferro-concrete,  14,  16 
Fibres,  23,  24,  25 
Fibroin,  30 
Food-stuffs,  29 
Forestry,  39 
Freezing  point,  6,  21 

GALL-NUTS,  25 

Gas  theory,  39 

Gelatine,  3,  4,  8,  9,  23,  27,  28,  29 

Generation,  45,  47,  48 

Germany,  1 

Glass,  13,  14,  26,  27,  28 

Glauber's  salts,  8,  10,  14,  37,  44 

Glucose,  11 

Glue,  3,  8,  16 

Gluten,  4,  20 

Glycerine,  18 

Glycogen,  3,  7,  9 

Gold,  8,  22,  26,  27 

Gravel,  16 

Gum,  3,  6,  9,  23 

Gun-cotton,  27,  28 

Gunpowder,  28 

Gutta-percha,  25,  26 

Gypsum,  3,  4,  7,  8,  10,  14,  36 


HAIR,  24 
Heavy  spar,  3 
Hides,  25 
Humic  acid,  33 
Humidity,  24 
Hydrocarbons,  18 
Hydrochloric  acid,  2,  11,  13,  15 
Hydrogen  peroxide,  13 
Hydrolysis,  16 
Hydrosols,  8 

Hydroxides,  3,  9,  10,  12,  15,  16,  17, 
18,  20,  32,  33,  34,  40 

ILLUMINATION,  26 
Indigo,  3,  18 
Inulin,  3 
Invertin,  4 
Iodine,  3,  28 
Ironing,  31 
Isinglass,  4 

KAOLIN,  18,  34 

LATEX,  3 

Lead-chloride,  4,  7 

Leaves,  5 

Lignin,  39 

Lime,  15,  16,  22,  36 

Linen,  23 

Liquid  crystals,  40 

MAGNESIUM  SULPHATE,  14,  37,  44 

Malates,  11 

Maltose,  18,  30 

Manure,  19,  35,  36,  39 

Margarine,  31 

Mauveine,  2 

Mechanics,  2 

Melting  point,  26 

Membrane,  2,  6,  11,  23 

Mercurous  chloride,  7 

Mercury,  28 

Mercury  cyanide,  13 

Milk,  31 

Mirror,  27 

Molecular  weight,  6,  7 

Molecule,  2,  6,  7,  17,  45 

Monad,  46,  47 


SUBJECT 


53 


Mortar,  16 
Mud,  33 


NAMALAND,  37 

Nature,  1,  4,  7,  27,  31,  42,  45 

Nitric  acid,  28 
Nitrogen,  5 
Nitro-glycerine,  27 

OILS,  8,  22,  30,  31 
Ontogeny,  42 
Opal,  32,  33 
Orthoclase,  33 
Osmotic  pressure,  6,  21 
Ova,  44 
Oxides,  3 
Oxygen,  5,  20,  37 

PAPER,  26 

Pathology,  43 

Pectins,  23 

Permanganate,  13 

Petrifications,  32 

Phosphates,  3,  36 

Phosphorus,  3,  5 

Photography,  28,  29 

Phylogeny,  42 

Plasmogeny,  45 

Plasticity,  1,  17,  19,  20,  21,  33,  40 

Platinum,  22 

Porcelain,  1,  19 

Proteins,  3,  4,  5,  6,  9,  15,  23,  30,  31, 

42,  46 
Protoplasm,  3,  4,   11,  29,   30,   42, 

45,  47 

Prussian  blue,  3,  13,  18 
Psilomelane,  32 
Purple  of  Cassius,  3,  27 

QUARTZ,  13,  34 
Quicklime,  16 

BAGS,  26 
Eectification,  22 
Eennet,  31 
Resin,  26,  30 
Eesinic  acid,  26 
Eivers,  33 


Eubber,  3,  11,  25,  26 


SALTPETRE,  11 

Sand,  16,  17,  34 

Saponification,  22 

Sea-water,  3 

Sewage,  19 

Silicates,  9,  14,  15,  32,  33,  34,  35, 

36,  39 

Silicic  acid,  2,  7,  8,  9,  11,  32 
Silk,  23,  24 
Silver,  8,  27,  28 
Silver  bromide,  28,  29 
Silver  iodide,  40 
Sizing,  26 
Slate,  17 

Soap,  6,  15,  18,  19,  21,  22 
Soda,  37 

Sodium  chloride,  3,  4,  6,  7,  10,  35 
Sodium  nitrate,  10 
Sodium  silicate,  2,  11 
Sodium  sulphate,  8,  10,  14,  37,  44 
Spermatozoa,  44 
Stannic  acid,  27 
Stannous  chloride,  27 
Starch,  1,  3,  4,  5,  7,  9,  18,  19,  20, 

25,  26,  29,  30,  31 
Stassfurt,  38 
Sugar,  6,  11,  19,  23,  30 
Sulphides,  3,  8,  9,  20,  44 
Sulphur,  5,  25 
Sulphuric  acid,  30 
Sulphurous  acid,  13,  14 
Sumach,  3 
Sun,  4 
Sylvine,  3 

TALC,  10,  15,  25 

Tannic  acid,  25 

Tannin,  3,  9,  20,  25 

Tanning,  19,  25 

Tar,  2 

Temperature,  8,  13,  14,  20,  26,  32, 

35,38 

Therapy,  43 
Thermodynamics,  5 
Thinners,  18,  41 


•  V  :  &EJ5SJECT  INDEX. 


TuhgStetf,  26***  V  ' 
Tungstic  acid,  7 
TurnbulTs  blue,  18 
Tragacanth,  3 
Trass,  32 
Trypsin,  4 


ULTRAMARINE,  10 

Ultra -microscope,  8,  27,  46 

Urea,  46 


VARNISH,  26 
Viscosity,  13 

WASHING,  31 
Wool,  23,  24 
Worms,  38 

ZEOLITES,  32 
Zinc,  18 
Zoologists,  3 
Zoology,  38 


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Baterden,  J.  R.     Timber.     (Westmenster  Series) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Bates,  E.  L.,  and  Charlesworth,  F.     Practical  Mathematics  and 

Geometry  for  Technical  Students .  i2mo, 

Part   I.    Preliminary  and  Elementary  Course *i  50 

Part  II.    Advanced  Course *i  50 

Beadle,  C.     Chapters  on  Papermaking.     Five  Volumes 

i2mo,  each,  *2  oo 

Beaumont,  R.     Color  in  Woven  Design 8vo, 

—  Finishing  of  Textile  Fabrics 8vo,  *4  oo 

Beaumont,  W.  W.     The  Steam-Engine  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

Bedell,  F.,  and  Pierce,  C.  A.     Direct  and  Alternating  Current 

Manual 8vo,  *2  oo 

Beech,  F.     Dyeing  of  Cotton  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Dyeing  of  Woolen  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Beckwith,  A.     Pottery 8vo,  paper,  o  60 

Beggs,  G.  E.     Stresses  in  Railway  Girders  and  Bridges (In  Press.) 

Begtrup,  J.     The  Slide  Valve 8vo,  *2  oo 

Bender,  C.  E.     Continuous  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  26.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

—  Proportions  of  Piers  used  in  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  4.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Bennett,  H.G.      The  Manufacture  of  Leather 8vo,  *4  50 

Bernthsen,  A.     A  Text-book  of  Organic  Chemistry.     Trans,  by 

G.  M'Gowan i2mo,  *2  50 

Berry,  W.  J.     Differential  Equations  of  the  First  Species. 

i2mo  (In  Preparation.) 
Bersch,  J.     Manufacture  of  Mineral  and  Lake  Pigments.     Trans. 

by  A.  C.  Wrigkt 8vo,  *$  oo 

Bertin,  L.  E.     Marine  Boilers.     Trans,  by  L.  S.  Robertson ..  8vo,  500 


6      D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Beveridge,  J.     Papermaker's  Pocket  Book i2mo,  *4  oo 

Binns,  C.  F.      Ceramic  Technology 8vo,  *5  oo 

—  Manual  of  Practical  Potting 8vo,  *y  50 

—  The  Potter's  Craft i2mo,  *2  oo 

Birchmore,  W.  H.     How  to  Use  a  Gas  Analysis i2mo,  *i  25 

Blaine,  R.  G.     The  Calculus  and  Its  Applications i2mo,  *i  50 

Blake,  W.  H.     Brewers'  Vade  Mecum 8vo,  *4  oo 

Blake,  W.  P.     Report  upon  the  Precious  Metals 8vo,  2  oo 

Bligh,  W.  G.     The  Practical  Design  of  Irrigation  Works 8vo,  *6  oo 

Blucher,  H.     Modern  Industrial  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  J.  P. 

Millington 8vo,  *y  50 

Blyth,  A.  W.     Foods:  Their  Composition  and  Analysis 8vo,  750 

—  Poisons:  Their  Effects  and  Detection 8vo,  7  50 

Bockmann,  F.     Celluloid i2mo,  *2  50 

Bodmer,  G.  R.     Hydraulic  Motors  and  Turbines i2mo,  5  oo 

Boileau,  J.  T.     Traverse  Tables 8vo,  5  oo 

Bonney,  G.  E.     The  Electro-platers'  Handbook i2mo,  i  20 

Booth,  W.  H.     Water  Softening  and  Treatment 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Superheaters  and  Superheating  and  their  Control.  .  .  .8vo,  *i  50 
Bottcher,  A.     Cranes:  Their  Construction,  Mechanical  Equip- 
ment and  Working.     Trans,  by  A.  Tolhausen..  .-4to,  *io  oo 

Bottler,  M.     Modern  Bleaching  Agents.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 

i2mo,  *2  50 

Bottone,  S.  R.      Magnetos  for  Automobilists i2mo,  *i  oo 

Boulton,  S.  B.     Preservation  of  Timber.     (Science  Series  No. 

82.) i6mo,  o  50 

Bourgougnon,  A.     Physical  Problems.     (Science  Series  No.  113.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Bourry,   E.       Treatise    on    Ceramic     Industries.       Trans,   by 

W.  P.  Rix 8vo,  *5  oo 

Bow,  R.  H.     A  Treatise  on  Bracing 8vo,  i  50 

Bowie,  A.  J.,  Jr.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining .  8vo,  500 

Bowker,  W.  R.     Dynamo  Motor  and  Switchboard  Circuits .  .8vo,  *2  50 

Bowles,  0.     Tables  of  Common  Rocks.     (Science  Series)  .  i6mo,  o  50 

Bowser,  E.  A.    Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Geometry.  1 2mo,  i  75 

—  Elementary    Treatise    on    the    Differential    and    Integral 

Calculus i2mo,  2  25 

—  Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Mechanics i2mo,  3  oo 

—  Elementary  Treatise  on  Hydro-mechanics i2mo,  2  50 


D.  VA>f  NOSTKAN'l)  COMPANY'S  SHOUT-TITLE  CATALOG       7 

Bowser,  E.  A.     A  Treatise  on  Roofs  and  Bridges I2mo,  *2  25 

Boycott,  G.  W.  M.     Compressed  Air  Work  and  Diving 8vo,  *4  oo 

Bragg,  E.  M.     Marine  Engine  Design i2mo,  *2   oo 

Brainard,    F.    R.      The    Sextant.      (Science    Series    No.    101.) 

i6mo, 

Brassey's  Naval  Annual  for  1911 8vo,  *6  oo 

Brew,  W.     Three-Phase  Transmission ,  .  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Brewer,  R.  W.  A.     The  Motor  Car i2mo,  *2  oo 

Briggs,  R.,  and  Wolff,  A.  R.     Steam-Heating.     (Science  Series 

No.  67.) i6mo,  o  50 

Bright,  C.     The  Life  Story  of  Sir  Charles  Tilson  Bright 8vo,  *4  50 

British  Standard  Sections 8x15  *i  oo 

Complete  list  of  this  series  (45  parts)  sent  on  application. 
Broadfoot,  S.  K.     Motors  Secondary  Batteries.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) i2mo,  *o  75 

Broughton,  H.  H.    Electric  Cranes  and  Hoists *9  oo 

Brown,  G.     Healthy  Foundations.     (Science  Series  No.  80.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Brown,  H.     Irrigation 8vo,  *5  oo 

Brown,  Wm.  N.     The  Art  of  Enamelling  on  Metal i2mo,  *i  oo 

—  Handbook  on  Japanning  and  Enamelling i2mo,  *i  50 

—  House  Decorating  and  Painting i2mo,  *i  50 

—  History  of  Decorative  Art i2mo,  *i  25 

—  Dipping,    Burnishing,    Lacquering    and    Bronzing    Brass 

Ware i2mo,  *i  oo 

—  Workshop  Wrinkles 8vo,  *i  oo 

Browne,  R.  E.     Water  Meters.     (Science  Series  No.  81.).  i6mo,  o  50 

Bruce,  E.  M.     Pure  Food  Tests i2mo,  *i  25 

Bruhns,  Dr.     New  Manual  of  Logarithms 8vo,  half  mor.,  2  50 

Brunner,   R.     Manufacture  of  Lubricants,  Shoe  Polishes  and 

Leather  Dressings.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  oo 

Buel,  R.  H.     Safety  Valves.     (Science  Series  No.  21.). . .  .  i6mo,  o  50 
Bulmann,  H.  F.,  and  Redmayne,  R.  S.  A.  Colliery  Working  and 

Management 8vo,  6  oo 

Burgh,  N.  P.     Modern  Marine  Engineering 4to,  half  mor.,  10  oo 

Burt,  W.  A.     Key  to  the  Solar  Compass i6mo,  leather,  2  50 

Burton,    F.    G.      Engineering    Estimates    and   Cost   Accounts. 

I2mo,  *i  50 

Buskett,  E.  W.     Fire  Assaying i2mo,  *i  25 


8      D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Cain,  W.     Brief  Course  in  the  Calculus i2mo,  *i  75 

—  Elastic  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  48.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Maximum  Stresses.     (Science  Series  No.  38.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Practical  Designing  Retaining  of  Walls.     (Science  Series 

No.  3.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Theory  of  Steel-concrete  Arches  and  of  Vaulted  Structures. 

(Science  Series) i6mo,  o  50 

Theory  of  Voussoir   Arches.      (Science   Series    No.    12.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Symbolic  Algebra.     (Science  Series  No.  73.) i6mo,  o  50 

Campin,  F.     The  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs 8vo,  2  oo 

Carpenter,    F.    D.     Geographical    Surveying.     (Science    Series 

No.  37.) i6mo, 

Carpenter,   R.   C.,   and    Diederichs,   H.      Internal -Combustion 

Engines 8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  E.  T.     Motive  Power  and  Gearing  for  Electrical  Machin- 
ery  • 8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  H.  A.     Ramie  (Rhea),  China  Grass i2mo,  *2  oo 

Carter,  H.  R.     Modern  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  Spinning 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.     Machine  Design.     Part  I.  Fastenings 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.,  and  Chaffee,  J.  I.    Elements  of  Graphic  Statics 

and  General  Graphic  Methods 8vo,  *3  oo 

Short  Course  in  Graphic  Statics 121x10,  *i  50 

Caven,  R.  M.,  and  Lander,  G.  D.     Systematic  Inorganic  Chemis- 
try  I2H10,  *2  00 

Chambers'  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  i  75 

Charnock,  G.  F.     Workshop  Practice.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo  (In  Press.) 

Charpentier,  P.     Timber 8vo,  *6  oo 

Chatley,  H.     Principles  and  Designs  of  Aeroplanes.     (Science 

Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  How  to  Use  Water  Power i2mo,  *i  oo 

Child,  C.  T.     The  How  and  Why  of  Electricity i2mo,  i  oo 

Christie,  W.  W.     Boiler-waters,    Scale,   Corrosion,    Foaming. 

8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Chimney  Design  and  Theory 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Furnace  Draft.     (Science  Series) i6mo,  o  50 

Church's  Laboratory  Guide.     Rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch..  8  vo,  *2  50 

Clapperton,  G.     Practical  Papermaking 8vo,  2  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG      9 


Clark,  A.  G.    Motor  Car  Engineering.    Vol.  I.  Construction. 

(In  Press.) 

Clark,  C.  H.    Marine  Gas  Engines i2mo,  *i  50 

Clark,  D.  K.     Rules,  Tables  and  Data  for  Mechanical  Engineers 

8vo,  5  oo 

—  Fuel:  Its  Combustion  and  Economy i2mo,  i  50 

—  The  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocketbook i6mo,  2  oo 

—  Tramways:  Their  Construction  and  Working 8vo,  7  50 

Clark,  J.  M.     New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turnouts.. 

1 2  mo,  i  oo 
Clausen-Thue,  W.     ABC  Telegraphic  Code.     Fourth  Edition 

i2mo,  *5  oo 

Fifth  Edition 8vo,  *7  oo 

—  The  Ai  Telegraphic  Code 8vo,  *7  50 

Cleemann,  T.  M.     The  Railroad  Engineer's  Practice i2mo,  *i  50 

Clerk,  D.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Theory  of  the  Gas  Engine.     (Science 

Series  No.  62.) i6mo,  o  50 

Clevenger,  S.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Government  Sur- 
veying   i6mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Clouth,  F.     Rubber,  Gutta-Percha,  and  Balata 8vo,  *5  oo 

Coffin,  J.  H.  C.     Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy i2mo,  *3  50 

Colburn,  Z.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.     Steam  Boiler  Explosions. 

(Science  Series  No.  2.) i6mo,  o  50 

Cole,  R.  S.     Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics i2mo,  i  50 

Coles- Finch,  W.     Water,  Its  Origin  and  Use 8vo,  *$  oo 

Collins,  J.  E.     Useful  Alloys  and  Memoranda  for  Goldsmiths, 

Jewelers i6mo,  o  50 

Constantine,  E.     Marine  Engineers,  Their    Qualifications   and 

Duties 8vo,  *2  oo 

Coombs,  H.  A.     Gear  Teeth.     (Science  Series  No.  120). ..  i6mo,  o  50 

Cooper,  W.  R.     Primary  Batteries 8vo,  *4  oo 

—  "  The  Electrician  "  Primers 8vo,  *5  oo 

Part  I *i  So 

Part  II *2  50 

Part  IH *2  oo 

Copperthwaite,  W.  C.     Tunnel  Shields --4to,  *p  oo 

Corey,  H.  T.     Water  Supply  Engineering 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Corfield,  W.  H.  Dwelling  Houses.  (Science  Series  No.  50.)  i6mo,  o  50 
Water  and  Water-Supply.     (Science  Series  No.  17.). .  i6mo,  o  50 


10   D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Cornwall,  H.  B.     Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

Courtney,  C.  F.     Masonry  Dams 8vo,  3  50 

Cowell,  W.  B.     Pure  Air,  Ozone,  and  Water i2mo,  *2  oo 

Craig,  T.     Motion  of  a  Solid  in  a  Fuel.     (Science  Series  No.  49.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Wave  and  Vortex  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  43.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Cramp,  W.     Continuous  Current  Machine  Design 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.     Electric  Lighting.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.   I.     The  Generating  Plant 3  oo 

Vol.  II.     Distributing  Systems  and  Lamps 3  oo 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Arendt,  M.     Electric  Motors 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Wheeler,  S.  S.     The  Management  of  Electri- 
cal Machinery i2mo,  *i  oo 

Cross,  C.  F.,  Bevan,  E.  J.,  and  Sindall,  R.  W.     Wood  Pulp  and 

Its  Applications.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.     Elementary  Prospective 8vo,  i  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.,  and  Thaw,  J.     Advanced  Perspective 8vo,  i  50 

Culley,  J.  L.     Theory  of  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  87.)i6mo,  o  50 

Davenport,  C.     The  Book.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Davies,  D.  C.     Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining 8vo,  5  oo 

—  Earthy  Minerals  and  Mining 8vo,  5  oo 

Davies,  E.  H.     Machinery  for  Metalliferous  Mines 8vo,  8  oo 

Davies,  F.  H.      Electric  Power  and  Traction 8vo,  *2  oo 

Dawson,  P.     Electric  Traction  on  Railways 8vo,  *g  oo 

Day,  C.     The  Indicator  and  Its  Diagrams i2mo,  *2  oo 

Deerr,  N.     Sugar  and  the  Sugar  Cane 8vo,  *8  oo 

Deite,  C.     Manual  of  Soapmaking.     Trans,  by  S.  T.  King.  _4to,  *5  oo 
De  la  Coux,  H.     The  Industrial  Uses  of  Water.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris 8 vo,  *4  50 

Del  Mar,  W.  A.     Electric  Power  Conductors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Denny,  G.  A.     Deep-Level  Mines  of  the  Rand 4to,  *io  oo 

—  Diamond  Drilling  for  Gold *5  oo 

De  Roos,  J.  D.  C.     Linkages.     (Science  Series  No.  47.). . .  i6mo,  o  50 

Derr,  W.  L.     Block  Signal  Operation Oblong  i2mo,  *i  50 

Desaint,  A.     Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix  Them.  .8  vo,  *io  oo 

De  Varona,  A.     Sewer  Gases.     (Science  Series  No.  55.)...  i6mo,  050 
Devey,  R.  G.     Mill  and  Factory  Wiring.     (Installation  Manuals 

Series.) i2mo,  *i  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG    11 

Dibdin,  W.  J.     Public  Lighting  by  Gas  and  Electricity 8vo,  *8  oo 

—  Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water 8vo,  6  50 

Dichman,  C.    Basic  Open-Hearth  Steel  Process 8vo,  *3  50 

Dietrich,  K.     Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum  Resins  .8vo,  *3  oo 
Dinger,  Lieut.  H.  C.     Care  and  Operation  of  Naval  Machinery 

I2H10.  *2   OO 

Dixon,  D.  B.     Machinist's  and  Steam  Engineer's  Practical  Cal- 
culator  i6mo,  mor.,  i  25 

Doble,  W.  A.     Power  Plant  Construction  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

(In  Press.) 

Dodd,  G.     Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  Mining,  Machinery,  and 

the  Industrial  Arts i2mo,  i  50 

Dorr,  B.  F.     The  Surveyor's  Guide  and  Pocket  Table-book. 

i6mo,  mor.,  2  oo 

Down,  P.  B.     Handy  Copper  Wire  Table i6mo,  *i  oo 

Draper,    C.    H.     Elementary   Text-book    of   Light,    Heat  and 

Sound i2mo,  i  oo 

—  Heat  and  the  Principles  of  Thermo-dynamics i2mo,  i  50 

Duckwall,  E.  W.    Canning  and  Preserving  of  Food  Products. 8 vo,  *5  oo 
Dumesny,  P.,  and  Noyer,  J.     Wood  Products,  Distillates,  and 

Extracts 8vo,  *4  50 

Duncan,  W.  G.,  and  Penman,  D.  The  Electrical  Equipment  of 

Collieries 8vo,  *4  oo 

Duthie,  A.  L.  Decorative  Glass  Processes.  (Westminster 

Series) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Dyson,  S.  S.  Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials 8vo,  *5  oo 

Dyson,  S.  S.,  and  Clarkson,  S.  S.  Chemical  Works (In  Press.) 

Eccles,R.G.,  and  Duckwall,  E.W.  Food  Preservatives.  8 vo,  paper,  o  50 

Eddy,  H.  T.     Researches  in  Graphical  Statics 8vo,  i  50 

—  Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads 8vo,  i  50 

Edgcumbe,  K.     Industrial  Electrical  Measuring  Instruments . 

8vo,  *2  50 

Eissler,  M.     The  Metallurgy  of  Gold 8vo,  7  50 

—  The  Hydrometallurgy  of  Copper 8vo,  *4  50 

-  The  Metallurgy  of  Silver 8vo,  4  oo 

The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead 8vo,  5  oo 

Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Gold 8vo,  3  oo 

A  Handbook  of  Modern  Explosives 8vo,  5  oo 


12    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Ekin,  T.  C.     Water  Pipe  and    Sewage    Discharge  Diagrams 

folio,  *3  oo 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  and  Storer,  F.  H.    Compendious  Manual  of  Qualita- 
tive Chemical  Analysis i2mo,  *i  25 

Elliot,  Major  G.  H.     European  Light-house  Systems 8vo,  5  oo 

Ennis,  Win.  D.     Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils   8vo,  *4  oo 

—  Applied  Thermodynamics 8vo,  *4  50 

Flying  Machines  To-day .' i2mo,  *i  50 

Vapors  for  Heat  Engines i2mo,  *i  oo 

Erfurt,  J.     Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp.     Trans,  by  J.  Hubner.  ..8vo,  *7  50 

Erskine -Murray,  J.     A  Handbook  of  Wireless  Telegraphy ..  8vo,  *3  50 

Evans,  C.  A.     Macadamized  Roads (In  Press.} 

Ewing,  A.  J.     Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fairie,  J.     Notes  on  Lead  Ores i2mo,  *i  oo 

Notes  on  Pottery  Clays i2mo,  *i  50 

Fairley,  W.,  and  Andre,  Geo.  J.     Ventilation  of  Coal  Mines. 

(Science  Series  No.  58.) i6mo,  o  50 

Fairweather,  W.  C.     Foreign  and  Colonial  Patent  Laws  . .  .8vo,  *3  oo 
Fanning,    T.    T.     Hydraulic   and   Water-supply    Engineering. 

8vo,  *5  oo 
Fauth,  P.     The  Moon  in  Modern  Astronomy.     Trans,  by  J. 

McCabe 8vo,  *2  oo 

Fay,  I.  W.     The  Coal-tar  Colors 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fernbach,  R.  L.     Glue  and  Gelatine 8vo,  *3  oo 

Chemical  Aspects  of  Silk  Manufacture i2mo,  *i  oo 

Fischer,  E.     The  Preparation  of  Organic  Compounds.     Trans. 

by  R.  V.  Stanford i zmo,  *i  25 

Fish,  J.  C.  L.     Lettering  of  Working  Drawings.  .  . .  .Oblong  80,  i  oo 
Fisher,  H.  K.  C.,  and  Darby,  W.  C.     Submarine  Cable  Testing. 

8vo,  *3  So 

Fiske,  Lieut.  B.  A.     Electricity  in  Theory  and  Practice 8vo,  2  50 

Fleischmann,  W.     The  Book  of  the  Dairy.     Trans,  by  C.  M. 

Aikman 8vo,  4  oo 

Fleming,    J.    A.     The    Alternate-current    Transformer.     Two 

Volumes 8vo, 

Vol.    I.     The  Induction  of  Electric  Currents. .., *5  oo 

Vol.  II.     The  Utilization  of  Induced  Currents *5  oo 

Propagation  of  Electric  Currents 8vo,  *3  oo 


LN  NOSTltAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     13 


Fleming,  J,  A.     Centenary  of  the  Electrical  Current  .......  8vo,  *o  50 

—  Electric  Lamps  and  Electric  Lighting  ...............  8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Electric  Laboratory  Notes  and  Forms  ...............  4to,  *s  oo 

—  A  Handbook  for  the  Electrical  Laboratory  and  Testing 

Room.     Two  Volumes  ...................  8vo,  each,  *5  oo 

Fluery,  H.  The  Calculus  Without  Limits  or  Infinitesimals. 

Trans,  by  C.  0.  Mailloux  .........................  (In  Press.) 

Flynn,  P.  J.  Flow  of  Water.  (Science  Series  No.  84.).  .  .  i6mo,  o  50 

—  Hydraulic  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  66.)  .  .......  i6mo,  o  50 

Foley,  N.     British  and  American  Customary  and  Metric  Meas- 

ures ......  .  .................................  folio,  *3  oo 

Foster,    H.    A.     Electrical    Engineers'     Pocket-book.     (Sixth 

Edition.)  ..........................  .  .  i2mo,  leather,  5  oo 

—  Engineering  Valuation  of  Public  Utilities  ........  -  .8vo  (In  Press.) 

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Freudemacher,   P.   W.    Electrical  Mining  Installations.     (In- 

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14 


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Gerber,  N.  Analysis  of  Milk,  Condensed  Milk,  and  Infants' 

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Geschwind,  L.  Manufacture  of  Alum  and  Sulphates.  Trans. 

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Gross,  E.     Hops 8vo,  *4  50 

Grossman,  J.     Ammonia  and  its  Compounds i2mo,  *i  25 

Groth,  L.  A.     Welding  and  Cutting  Metals  by  Gases  or  Electric- 
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Grover,  F.     Modern  Gas  and  Oil  Engines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Gruner,  A.     Power-loom  Weaving 8vo,  *3  oo 

Glildner,    Hugo.      Internal-Combustion    Engines.      Trans,    by 

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Gunther,  C.  0.     Integration i2ino,  *i  25 

Gurden,  R.  L.     Traverse  Tables folio,  half  mor.  *7  50 

Guy,  A.  E.     Experiments  on  the  Flexure  of  Beams 8vo,  *i  25 

Haeder,  H.     Handbook  on  the  Steam-engine.     Trans,  by  H.  H. 

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Hainbach,  R.     Pottery  Decoration.     Trans,  by  C.  Slater.    12010,  *3  oo 

Hale,  W.  J.     Calculations  of  General  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  oo 

Hall,  C.  H.     Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles. ....  i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  R.  H.     Governors  and  Governing  Mechanism. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  W.  S.     Elements  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 

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Hancock,  H.     Textbook  of  Mechanics  and  Hydrostatics 8vo,  150 

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Harrison,  W.  B.     The  Mechanics'  Tool-book i2mo,  i  50 

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Hatt,  J.  A.  H.     The  Colorist. square  izmo,  *i  50 

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Hedges,  K.     Modern  Lightning  Conductors 8vo,  3  oo 

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Hildich,  H.     Concise  History  of  Chemistry I2mo,  *i  25 

Hill,  J.  W.     The  Purification  of  Public  Water  Supplies.     New 

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Hirshfeld,    C.    F.      Engineering     Thermodynamics.     (Science 

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Hobbs,  W.  R.  P.     The  Arithmetic  of  Electrical  Measurements 

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Hoff,  J.  N.     Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas 121110,  *i  50 

Hoff,  Com.W.  B.  The  Avoidance  of  Collisions  at  Sea.  i6mo,  mor.,  o  75 

Hole,  W.     The  Distribution  of  Gas 8vo,  *7  50 

Holley,  A.  L.     Railway  Practice folio,  12  oo 

Holmes,  A.  B.     The  Electric  Light  Popularly  Explained. 

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Hopkins,  N.  M.     Experimental  Electrochemistry 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Hopkinson,  J.,  Shoolbred,  J.  N.,  and  Day,  R.  E.     Dynamic 

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Homer,  J.     Engineers'  Turning 8vo,  *3  50 

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Houghton,  C.  E.     The  Elements  of  Mechanics  of  Materials. 

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Howe,  G.     Mathematics  for  the  Practical  Man i2mo,  *i  25 

Howorth,  J.     Repairing  and  Riveting  Glass,  China  and  Earthen- 
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Hubbard,  E.     The  Utilization  of  Wood-waste 8vo,  *2  50 

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Hurst,  H.  E.,  and  Lattey,  R.  T.     Text-book  of  Physics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.     Long  Distance  Electric  Power  Trans- 
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Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.,  and  Ihlseng,  M.  C,  Electricity  in 

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Hutton,  W.  S.     Steam-boiler  Construction 8vo,  6  oo 

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Hyde,  E.  W.     Skew  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  15.).. ..  i6rao,  o  50 

Induction  Coils.     (Science  Series  No.  53.) i6mo,  o  50 

Ingle,  H.     Manual  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 8vo,  *3  oo 

Innes,  C.  H.     Problems  in  Machine  Design. i2mo,  *2  oo 

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Jacob,  A.,  and  Gould,  E.  S.     On  the  Designing  and  Construction 

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Jamieson,  A.     Text  Book  on  Steam  and  Steam  Engines. .  .  .  8vo,  3  oo 

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Jannettaz,  E.     Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks.     Trans. 

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Jennings,    A.   S.     Commercial   Paints   and   Painting.     (West- 
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Jockin,  W.     Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith i2mo,  *i  oo 

Johnson,  G.  L.     Photographic  Optics  and  Color  Photography 

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Johnson,    W.    H.     The  Cultivation  and  Preparation   of   Para 

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Johnson,  W.  McA.     The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel (In  Preparation.) 

Johnston,  J.  F.  W.,  and  Cameron,  C.     Elements  of  Agricultural 

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Joly,  J.     Radioactivity  and  Geology i2mo,  *3  oo 

Jones,  H.  C.     Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity 

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Jones,  L.,  and  Scard,  F.  I.     Manufacture  of  Cane  Sugar 8vo,  *5  oo 

Joynson,  F.  H.     Designing  and  Construction  of  Machine  Gear- 
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Jiiptner,  H.  F.  V.     Siderology:  The  Science  of  Iron 8vo,  *5  oo 

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Kapp,  G.     Alternate  Current  Machinery.     (Science  Series  No. 

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Keim,  A.  W.     Prevention  of  Dampness  in  Buildings 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Kemble,  W.  T.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     The  Periodic  Law  and  the 

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Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  Unwin,  W.  C.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.  Compressed 

Air.  (Science  Series  No.  106.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  R.  Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators.  Six 

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Kennelly,  A.  E.     Electro-dynamic  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Kent,  W.    Strength  of  Materials.     (Science  Series  No.  41.).  i6mo,  050 

Kershaw,  J.  B.  C.     Fuel,  Water  and  Gas  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

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Testing  of  Alternating  Current  Machines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Kirkaldy,    W.    G.     David    Kirkaldy's    System    of    Mechanical 

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Kirkbride,  J.     Engraving  for  Illustration 8vo,  *i  50 

Kirkwood,  J.  P.     Filtration  of  River  Waters 4to,  7  50 

Klein,  J.  F.     Design  of  a  High  speed  Steam-engine 8vo,  *5  oo 

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Kleinhans,  F.  B.     Boiler  Construction 8vo,  3  oo 

Knight,  R.-Adm.  A.  M.    Modern  Seamanship 8vo,  *7  50 

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Knox,  W.  F.     Logarithm  Tables (In  Preparation.) 

Knott,  C.  G.,  and  Mackay,  J.  S.     Practical  Mathematics .  .  .  8vo,  2  oo 

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Koller,  T.     The  Utilization  of  Waste  Products 8vo,  *3  50 

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Lanchester,  F.  W.     Aerial  Flight.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

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Lamer,  E.  T.     Principles  of  Alternating  Currents i2mo,     *i  25 

Larrabee,   C.   S.     Cipher   and  Secret   Letter  and  Telegraphic 

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La  Rue,  B.   F.     Swing  Bridges.     (Science   Series  No.    107.). 

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Lassar-Cohn,  Dr.     Modern  Scientific  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  M. 

M.  Pattison  Muir izmo,     *2  oo 

Latimer,  L.  H.,  Field,  C.  J.,  and  Howell,  J.  W.     Incandescent 

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Latta,  M.  N.     Handbook  of  American  Gas-Engineering  Practice. 

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Leask,  A.  R.     Breakdowns  at  Sea i2mo,       2  oo 

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Lecky,  S.  T.  S.     "  Wrinkles  "  in  Practical  Navigation 8vo,     *8  oo 

Le  Doux,  M.     Ice-Making  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  46.) 

i6mo,      o  50 
Leeds,  C.  C.    Mechanical  Drawing  for  Trade  Schools .  oblong,  4to, 

High  School  Edition *i  25 

Machinery  Trades  Edition *2  oo 

Lefe*vre,  L.     Architectural  Pottery.     Trans,  by  H.  K.  Bird  and 

W.  M.  Binns 4to,     *7  So 

Lehner,  S.     Ink  Manufacture.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H. 

Robson 8vo,     *2  50 

Lemstrom,  S.     Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticulture^ 

8vo,     *i  50 
Le  Van,  W.  B.     Steam-Engine  Indicator.     (Science  Series  No. 

78.) iomos      o  50 

Lewes,  V.  B.     Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,     *2  oo 

Lewis,  L.  P.    Railway  Signal  Engineering 8vo, 

(In  Press.) 


22    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Lieber,  B.  F.     Lieber's  Standard  Telegraphic  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Code.     German  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

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French  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

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—  Lieber's  Appendix folio,  *i$  oo 

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Shippers'  Blank  Tables. 8vo,  *is  oo 

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—  Engineering  Code 8vo,  *i2  50 

Livermore,  V.  P.,  and  Williams,  J.     How  to  Become  a  Com- 
petent Motorman i2mo,     *i  oo 

Livingstone,    R.     Design   and   Construction   of   Commutators. 

8vo,  *2  25 

Lobben,  P.     Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Handbook  ......  8vo,  2  50 

Locke,  A.  G.  and  C.  G.     Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid 8vo,  10  oo 

Lockwood,  T.  D.     Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro-teleg- 
raphy  8vo,  2  50 

—  Electrical  Measurement  and  the  Galvanometer i2mo,  i  50 

Lodge,  0.  J.     Elementary  Mechanics i2mo,  i  50 

—  Signalling  Across  Space  without  Wires. 8vo,  *2  oo 

Lord,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Loring,  A.  E.     A  Handbook  of  the  Electromagnetic  Telegraph. 

(Science  Series  No.  39) i6mo,       o  50 

Loewenstein,  L.  C.,  and  Crissey,  C.P.     Centrifugal  Pumps . 

8vo,     *4  50 
Lucke,  C.  E.     Gas  Engine  Design 8vo,     *3  oo 

—  Power  Plants:  their  Design,  Efficiency,  and  Power  Costs. 

2  vols , (In  Preparation.) 

Lunge,  G.     Coal-tar  Ammonia.     Two  Volumes 8vo,  *i$  oo 

—  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali.     Three  Volumes 

8vo, 

Vol.    1=     Sulphuric  Acid.     In  two  parts *i5  oo 

Vol.  II.     Salt  Cake,  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Leblanc  Soda. 

In  two  parts *i5  oo 

Vol.  III.    Ammonia  Soda *io  oo 

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—  Technical  Chemists'  Handbook 121110,  leather,  *3  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG    23 

Lunge,  G.  Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis.  Trans, 
by  C.  A.  Keane.  In  collaboration  with  the  corps  of 
specialists. 

Vol.    I.     In  two  parts 8vo,  *is  oo 

Vol.  II.    In  two  parts 8vo,  *i8  oo 

Vol.  Ill (In  Preparation.) 

Lupton,  A.,  Parr,  G.  D.  A.,  and  Perkin,  H.     Electricity  as  Applied 

to  Mining 8vo,     *4  50 

Luquer,  L.  M.     Minerals  in  Rock  Sections 8vo,     *i  50 

Macewen,  H.  A.     Food  Inspection 8vo,  *2  50 

Mackenzie,  N.  F.     Notes  on  Irrigation  Works 8vo,  *2  50 

Mackie,  J.     How  to  Make  a  Woolen  Mill  Pay 8vo,  *2  oo 

Mackrow,  C.  Naval  Architect's  and  Shipbuilder's  Pocket- 
book i6mo,  leather,  5  oo 

Maguire,  Wm.  R.     Domestic  Sanitary  Drainage  and  Plumbing 

8vo,  4  oo 
Mallet,    A.     Compound    Engines.     Trans,    by    R.    R.    Buel. 

(Science  Series  No.  10.) i6mo, 

Mansfield,  A.  N.     Electro-magnets.     (Science  Series  No.  64) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Marks,  E.  C.  R.     Construction  of  Cranes  and  Lifting  Machinery 

i2mo,  *i  50 

—  Construction  and  Working  of  Pumps i2mo,  *i  50 

—  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  Tubes i2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Mechanical  Engineering  Materials i2mo,  *i  oo 

Marks,  G.  C.     Hydraulic  Power  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

—  Inventions,  Patents  and  Designs I2mo,  *i  oo 

Marlow,  T.  G.     Drying  Machinery  and  Practice 8vo,  *5  oo 

Marsh,  C.  F.     Concise  Treatise  on  Reinforced  Concrete..  .  .8vo,  *2  50 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.     Reinforced  Concrete 4to,  *5  oo 

—  Manual  of  Reinforced  Concrete  and  Concrete  Block  Con- 

struction  , i6mo,  mor.,     *2  50 

Marshall,  W.J.,  and  Sankey,  H.  R.    Gas  Engines.    (Westminster 

Series.) 8vo,     *2  oo 

Martin,   G.    Triumphs  and  Wonders  of  Modern  Chemistry. 

8vo,  *2  oo 
Massie,  W.  W.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and 

Telephony I2mo,     *i  oo 


24     D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Matheson,  D.     Australian  Saw-Miller's  Log  and  Timber  Ready 

Reckoner i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Mathot,  R.  E.     Internal  Combustion  Engines 8vo,  *6  oo 

Maurice,  W.     Electric  Blasting  Apparatus  and  Explosives  ..8  vo,  *3  50 

—  Shot  Firer's  Guide 8vo,  *i  50 

Maxwell,  J.  C.     Matter  and  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  36.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Maxwell,  W.  H.,  and  Brown,  J.  T.     Encyclopedia  of  Municipal 

and  Sanitary  Engineering. 4to,  *io  oo 

Mayer,  A.  M.     Lecture  Notes  on  Physics 8vo,  2  oo 

McCullough,  R.  S.     Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat .  8vo,  3  50 

Mclntosh,  J.  G.     Technology  of  Sugar 8vo,  *4  50 

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Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.  I.     Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling *3  50 

Vol.  II.     Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making *4  oo 

Vol.  III.     Spirit  Varnishes  and  Materials *4  So 

McKnight,   J.   D.,  and  Brown,   A.   W.     Marine   Multitubular 

Boilers *i  50 

McMaster,  J.  B.     Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centres.     (Science  Series 

No.  20.) i6mo,  o  50 

McMechen,  F.  L.     Tests  for  Ores,  Minerals  and  Metals. . .  i2mo,  *i  oo 

McNeill,  B.     McNenTs  Code 8vo,  *6  oo 

McPherson,  J.  A.     Water-works  Distribution 8vo,  2  50 

Melick,  C.  W.     Dairy  Laboratory  Guide i2mo,  *i  25 

Merck,  E.     Chemical  Reagents ;  Their  Purity  and  Tests ....  8vo,  *i  50 

Merritt,  Wm.  H.  Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver .  i6mo,  leather,  i  50 
Meyer,  J.  G.  A.,  and  Pecker,  C.  G.     Mechanical  Drawing  and 

Machine  Design 4to,  5  oo 

Michell,  S.     Mine  Drainage 8vo,  10  oo 

Mierzinski,  S.     Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris 

and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Miller,  E.  H.     Quantitative  Analysis  for  Mining  Engineers ..  8vo,  *i  50 
Miller,  G.  A.     Determinants.     (Science  Series  No.  105.). .  i6mo, 

Milroy,  M.  E.  W.     Home  Lace -making i2mo,  *i  oo 

Minifie,  W.     Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Mitchell,  C.  A.,  and  Prideaux,  R.  M.     Fibres  Used  in  Textile  and 

Hied  Industries 8vo,  *3  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY^  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG  25 

Modern  Meteorology i2mo,  i  50 

Monckton,  C.  C.  F.     Radiotelegraphy.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Monteverde,  R.  D.     Vest  Pocket  Glossary  of  English-Spanish, 

Spanish-English  Technical  Terms 64mo,  leather,  *i  oo 

Moore,  E.  C.  S.     New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solution  of 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  Formula 8vo,  *5  oo 

Morecroft,  J.  H.,  and  Hehre,  F.  W.    Testing  Electrical  Ma- 
chinery   8vo,  *i  50 

Moreing,  C.  A.,  and  Neal,  T.     New  General  and  Mining  Tele- 
graph Code 8vo,  *5  oo 

Morgan,  A.  P.     Wireless  Telegraph  Construction  for  Amateurs. 

i2mo,  *i  50 

Moses,  A.  J.     The  Characters  of  Crystals .  8vo,  *2  oo 

Moses,  A.  J.,  and  Parsons,  C.  I.     Elements  of  Mineralogy ..  8vo,  *2  50 

Moss,    S.    A.     Elements    of    Gas    Engine    Design.     (Science 

Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.    (Science  Series) .  i6mo,  o  50 
Mullin,  J.  P.     Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern-making   .  .  .  i2mo,  2  50 
Munby,  A.  E.     Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Building  Materials. 

(Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Murphy,  J.  G.     Practical  Mining i6mo,  i  oo 

Murray,  J.  A.     Soils  and  Manures.     (Westminster  Series. ).  8 vo,  *2  oo 

Naquet,  A.     Legal  Chemistry i2mo,  2  oo 

Nasmith,  J.     The  Student's  Cotton  Spinning 8vo,  3  oo 

—  Recent  Cotton  Mill  Construction i2mo,  2  oo 

Neave,  G.  B.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.    Identification  of  Organic 

Compounds i2mo,  *i  25 

Neilson,  R.  M.  Aeroplane  Patents 8vo,  *2  oo 

Nerz,  F.  Searchlights.  Trans,  by  C.  Rodgers 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nesbit,  A.  F.  Electricity  and  Magnetism (In  Preparation.) 

Neuberger,  H.,  and  Noalhat,  H.  Technology  of  Petroleum. 

Trans,  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh 8vo,  *io  oo 

Newall,  J.  W.  Drawing,  Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears.. .  .  8vo,  i  50 

Nicol,  G.  Ship  Construction  and  Calculations 8vo,  *4  50 

Nipher,  F.  E.  Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements 12 mo,  i  oo 

Nisbet,  H.  Grammar  of  Textile  Design 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nolan,  H.  The  Telescope.  (Science  Series  No.  51.) i6mo,  o  50 


26     D.  VAX  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Noll,  A.     How  to  Wire  Buildings i2mo,       i  50 

Nugent,  E.     Treatise  on  Optics i2mo,       i  50 

O'Connor,  H.     The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook.    .  i2mo,  leather,       3  50 

—  Petrol  Air  Gas i2mo,     *o  75 

Ohm,  G.  S.,  and  Lockwood,  T.  D.     Galvanic  Circuit.     Trans,  by 

William  Francis.     (Science  Series  No.  102.).  .  .  .  i6mo,  o  50 
Olsen,  J.  C.     Text    book  of  Quantitative   Chemical   Analysis  . . 

8vo,  *4  oo 
Olsson,  A.     Motor  Control,  in  Turret  Turning  and  Gun  Elevating. 

(U.  S.  Navy  Electrical  Series,  No.  i.)  .  ...i2mo,  paper,  *o  50 

Oudin,  M.  A.     Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems  .  .8vo,  *3  oo 

Palaz,  A.     Industrial  Photometry.     Trans,  by  G.  W.  Patterson, 

Jr ,  8vo,     *4  oo 

Pamely,  C.     Colliery  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  *io  oo 

Parr,  G.  D.  A.     Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instruments. 

8vo,     *3  50 

Parry,  E.  J.     Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artificial  Per- 
fumes  8vo,     *5  oo 

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Vol.    I.     Chemical  and   Microscopical  Analysis  of  Food 

and  Drugs 

Vol.  II.     Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts 

Parry,  E.  J.,  and  Coste,  J.  H.     Chemistry  of  Pigments  .....  8vo,     *4  50 

Parry,  L.  A.     Risk  and  Dangers  of  Various  Occupations 8vo,     *3  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F ,  and  Hobart,  H.  M.     Armature  Windings  ...  4to,     *y  50 

—  Electric  Railway  Engineering. ' 4to,  *io  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Parry,  E.     Electrical  Equipment  of  Tram- 
ways  (In  Press.) 

Parsons,  S.  J.     Malleable  Cast  Iron 8vo,  *2  50 

Partington,  J.  R.     Higher  Mathematics  for  Chemical  Students 

i2mo,  *2  oo 

Passmore,  A.  C.     Technical  Terms  Used  in  Architecture  ...8vo,  *3  50 

Patterson,  D.     The  Color  Printing  of  Carpet  Yarns 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Color  Matching  on  Textiles 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  The  Science  of  Color  Mixing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Paulding,  C.  P.     Condensation  of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare 

Pipes 8vo,     *2  oo 


j>.  VAN  NosTKAXJ)  COMPANY'S  sfioirr  TITLE  CATALOG     27 

Paulding.  C.  P.     Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold-storage 

Insulation i2mo,  *i  oo 

Peirce,  B.     System  of  Analytic  Mechanics 4to,  10  oo 

Pendred,  V.     The  Railway  Locomotive.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 
Perkin,    F.    M.      Practical    Method    of    Inorganic    Chemistry. 

i2mo,  *i  oo 

Perrigo,  0.  E.     Change  Gear  Devices 8vo,  i  oo 

Perrine,  F.  A.  C.     Conductors  for  Electrical  Distribution  .  .  .  8vo,  *3  50 

Perry,  J.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  *2  50 

Petit,  G.     White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints 8vo,  *i  50 

Petit,   R.     How   to   Build  an  Aeroplane.     Trans,   by  T.   O'B. 

Hubbard,  and  J.  H.  Ledeboer. 8vo,  *i  50 

Pettit,  Lieut.  J.  S.     Graphic  Processes.     (Science  Series  No.  76.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Philbrick,  P.  H.     Beams  and  Girders.     (Science  Series  No.  88.) 

i6mo, 

Phillips,  J.     Engineering  Chemistry 8vo,  *4  50 

—  Gold  Assaying 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Dangerous  Goods 8vo,  3  50 

Phin,  J.     Seven  Follies  of  Science I2mo,  *i  25 

Pickworth,  C.  N.     The  Indicator  Handbook.     Two  Volumes 

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—  The  Slide  Rule. i2mo,  i  oo 

Plattner's  Manual  of    Blowpipe  Analysis.     Eighth  Edition,  re- 
vised.    Trans,  by  H.  B.  Cornwall 8vo,  *4  oo 

Plympton,  G.  W.     The  Aneroid  Barometer.     (Science  Series.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

—  How  to  become  an  Engineer.     (Science  Series  No.  100.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Plympton,  G.  W.     Van  Nostrand's  Table  Book.     (Science  Series 

No.  104.) * i6mo,  o  50 

Pochet,  M.  L.     Steam  Injectors.     Translated  from  the  French. 

(Science  Series  No.  29.) i6mo,  o  50 

Pocket  Logarithms  to  Four  Places.     (Science  Series.).  .  .  .    i6mo,  o  50 

leather,  i  oo 

Polleyn,  F.     Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile  Fabrics .  8vo,  *3  oo 

Pope,  F.  L.     Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph 8vo,  i  50 


28      D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Popplewell,  W.  C.     Elementary  Treatise   on  Heat  and  Heat 

Engines izmo,  *3  oo 

—  Prevention  of  Smoke. 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Strength  of  Minerals 8vo,  *i  75 

Potter,  T.     Concrete 8vo,  *3  oo 

Practical  Compounding  of  Oils,  Tallow  and  Grease 8vo,  *3  50 

Practical  Iron  Founding i2mo,  i  50 

Pray,  T.,  Jr.     Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

—  Steam  Tables  and  Engine  Constant 8vo,  2  oo 

—  Calorimeter  Tables 8vo,  i  oo 

Preece,  W.  H.     Electric  Lamps (In  Press.) 

Prelini,  C.     Earth  and  Rock  Excavation 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Dredges  and  Dredging 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Prescott,  A.  B.     Organic  Analysis 8vo,  5  oo 

Prescott,   A.   B.,   and  Johnson,   O.   C.     Quauitative   Chemical 

Analysis * 8vo,  *3  50 

Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Sullivan,  E.  C.     First  Book  in  Qualitative 

Chemistry i2mo,  *i  50 

Pritchard,  O.  G.     The  Manufacture  of  Electric-light  Carbons. 

8vo,  paper,  *o  60 
Pullen,  W.  W.  F.     Application  of  Graphic  Methods  to  the  Design 

of  Structures i2mo,  *2  50 

—  Injectors:  Theory,  Construction  and  Working i2mo,  *i  50 

Pulsifer,  W.  H.     Notes  for  a  History  of  Lead 8vo,  4  oo 

Purchase,  W.  R.     Masonry i2mo,  *3  oo 

Putsch,  A.     Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Pynchon,  T.  R.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics 8vo,  3  oo 

Rafter,  G.  W.     Mechanics  of  Ventilation.     (Science  Series  No. 

33-) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Potable  Water.     (Science  Series  No.  103.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Treatment  of  Septic  Sewage.     (Science  Series.) ....  i6mo,  o  50 
Rafter,  G.  W.,  and  Baker,  M.  N.     Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United 

States 4to,  *6  oo 

Raikes,  H.  P.     Sewage  Disposal  Works 8vo,  *4  oo 

Railway  Shop  Up-to-Date 4to,  2  oo 

Ramp,  H.  M.     Foundry  Practice (In  Press.) 

Randall,  P.  M.     Quartz  Operator's  Handbook i2mo,  2  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     29 

Randau,  P.     Enamels  and  Enamelling 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  5  oo 

—  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  6  50 

Machinery  and  Millwork 8vo,  5  oo 

The  Steam-engine  gnd  Other  Prime  Movers 8vo,  5  oo 

Useful  Rules  and  Tables 8vo,  4  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.,  and  Bamber,  E.  F.     A  Mechanical  Text- 
book  8vo,  3  50 

Raphael,  F.  C.     Localization  of    Faults  in  Electric  Light  and 

Power  Mains 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rathbone,  R.  L.  B.     Simple  Jewellery 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rateau,   A.     Flow  of  Steam  through  Nozzles    and    Orifices. 

Trans,  by  H.  B.  Brydon 8vo,  *i  50 

Rausenberger,  F.     The  Theory  of  the  Recoil  of  Guns. .....  8vo,  *4  50 

Rautenstrauch,  W.     Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design, 

8vo,  boards,  *i  50 
Rautenstrauch,  W.,  and  Williams,  J.  T.     Machine  Drafting  and 

Empirical  Design. 

Part   I.  Machine  Drafting 8vo,  *i  25 

Part  II.  Empirical  Design (In  Preparation.) 

Raymond,  E.  B.     Alternating  Current  Engineering i2mo,  *2  50 

Rayner,  H.     Silk  Throwing  and  Waste  Silk  Spinning 8vo,  *2  50 

Recipes  for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,  Oil,  Soap  and  Drysaltery 

Trades 8vo,  *3  50 

Recipes  for  Flint  Glass  Making i2mo,  *4  50 

Redwood,  B.     Petroleum.     (Science  Series  No.  92.) i6mo,  o  50 

Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook 8vo,  *5  oo 

—  Key  to  the  Nineteenth  Edition  of  Reed's  Engineers'  Hand- 

book  8vo,  *3  oo 

Reed's  Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers i2mo,  i  50 

—  Marine  Boilers i2mo,  2  oo 

Reinhardt,  C.  W.     Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers,  and 

Students oblong  4to,  boards,  i  oo 

—  The  Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting. . .  oblong  4to,  boards,  *i  oo 
Reiser,  F.     Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris  and  H.  Robson i2mo,  *2  50 

Reiser,  N.  Faults  in  the  Manufacture  of  Woolen  Goods.  Trans. 

by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Spinning  and  Weaving  Calculations 8vo,  *5  oo 


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Renwick,  W.  G.     Marble  and  Marble  Working 8vo,  5  oo 

Reynolds,   0.,   and   Idell,   F.   E.     Triple   Expansion   Engines. 

(Science  Series  No.  99.) i6mo,  o  50 

Rhead,  G.  F.     Simple  Structural  Woodwork i2mo,  *i  oo 

Rhead,  G.  W.     British  Pottery  Marks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rice,  J.  M.,  and  Johnson,-W.  W.     A  New  Method  of  Obtaining 

the  Differential  of  Functions i2mo,  o  50 

Richardson,  J.     The  Modern  Steam  Engine 8vo,  *3  50 

Richardson,  S.  S.     Magnetism  and  Electricity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Rideal,  S.     Glue  and  Glue  Testing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rings,  F.     Concrete  in  Theory  and  Practice i2mo,  *2  50 

Ripper,  W.     Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing. . .  folio,  *6  oo 
Roberts,  F.  C.     Figure  of  the  Earth.     (Science  Series  No.  79.) 

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Robertson,  L.  S.     Water-tube  Boilers 8vo,  3  oo 

Robinson,  J.  B.     Architectural  Composition 8vo,  *2  50 

Robinson,  S.  W.     Practical  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels. 

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Robson,  J.  H,     Machine  Drawing  and  Sketching 8vo,  *i  50 

Roebling,  J.  A.     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges.  .    folio,  25  oo 

Rogers,  A.     A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial  Chemistry   .  i2mo,  *i  50 

Rogers,  A.,  and  Aubert,  A.  B.     Industrial  Chemistry (In  Press.) 

Rogers,  F.     Magnetism  of  Iron  Vessels.     (Science  Series  No.  30.) 

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Rollins,  W.     Notes  on  X-Light 8vo,  5  oo 

Rose,  J.     The  Pattern-makers'  Assistant 8vo,  2  50 

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Rose,  T.  K.     The  Precious  Metals.     (Westminster  Series.) .  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Rosenhain,  W.  Glass  Manufacture.  (Westminster  Series.).  .8 vo,  *2  oo 

Ross,  W.  A.     Blowpipe  in  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy.  .  .i2mo,  *2  oo 
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Rowan,  F.  J.     Practical  Physics  of  the  Modern  Steam-boiler 

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Rowan,  F.  J.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Boiler  Incrustation  and  Corro- 
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Roxburgh,  W.     General  Foundry  Practice 8vo,  *3  50 

Runnier,    E.     Wireless    Telephony.     Trans,    by    J.    Erskine- 

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'    Russell,  A.     Theory  of  Electric  Cables  and  Networks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Sabine,  R.    History  and  Progress  of   the   Electric  Telegraph. 

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Saeltzer,  A.     Treatise  on  Acoustics i2mo,  i  oo 

Salomons,  D.     Electric  Light  Installations.     i2mo. 

Vol.     I.     The  Management  of  Accumulators 2  50 

Vol.    II.     Apparatus 2  25 

Vol.  III.     Applications i  50 

Sanford,  P.  G.     Nitro-explosives 8vo,  *4  oo 

Saunders,  C.  H.     Handbook  of  Practical  Mechanics i6mo,  i  oo 

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Saunnier,  C.     Watchmaker's  Handbook i2mo,  3  oo 

Sayers,  H.  M.     Brakes  for  Tram  Cars 8vo,  *i  25 

Scheele,  C.  W.     Chemical  Essays. 8vo,  *2  oo 

Schellen,  H.     Magneto-electric  and  Dynamo -electric  Machines 

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Scherer,  R.     Casein.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schidrowitz,  P.    Rubber,  Its  Production  and  Uses 8vo,  *5  oo 

Schmall,  C.  N.     First  Course  in  Analytic  Geometry,  Plane  and 

Solid i2mo,  half  leather,  *i  75 

Schmall,  C.  N.,  and  Schack,  S.  M.     Elements  of  Plane  Geometry 

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Schmeer,  L.     Flow  of  Water 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schumann,  F.     A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

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Schwartz,  E.  H.  L.     Causal  Geology 8vo,  *2  50 

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32    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Scribner,  J.  M.     Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Companion. 

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Searle,  A.  B.    Modern  Brickmaking 8vo,  *5  oo 

Searle,  G.  M.     "  Sumners'  Method."     Condensed  and  Improved. 

(Science  Series  No.  124.) 8vo.  o  50 

Seaton,  A.  E.     Manual  of  Marine  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Seaton,  A.  E.,  and  Rounthwaite,  H.  M.     Pocket-book  of  Marine 

Engineering i6mo,  leather,  3  oo 

Seeligmann,  T.,  Torrilhon,  G.  L.,  and  Falconnet,  H.     India 

Rubber  and  Gutta  Percha.     Trans,  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh 

8vo,  *5  oo 
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8vo,  *3  oo 

Sellew,  W.  H.     Steel  Rails 4to  (7n  Press.) 

Senter,  G.     Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry iimo,  *i  75 

Sever,  G.  F.     Electric  Engineering  Experiments  ....  8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 
Sever,  G.  F.,  and  Townsend,  F.     Laboratory  and  Factory  Tests 

in  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *2  50 

Sewall,  C.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Sewell,  T.     Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering   8vo,  *3  oo 

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Sexton,  A.  H.     Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials i2mo,  *2  50 

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Seymour,  A.     Practical  Lithography 8vo,  *2  50 

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Shaw,  H.  S.  H.     Mechanical  Integrators.    (Scitnce  Series  No. 

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Shaw,  P.  E.     Course  of  Practical  Magnetism  and  Electricity .  8vo,  *i  oo 

Shaw,  S.     History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Shields,  J.  E.     Notes  on  Engineering  Construction i2mo,  i  50 

Shock,  W.  H.     Steam  Boilers 4to,  half  mor.,  15  oo 

Shreve,  S.  H.     Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs 8vo,  3  50 

Shunk,  W.  F.     The  Field  Engineer. .' 12010,  mor.,  2  50 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Appleton,  H.  A.     Handbook  of  Soap 

Manufacture 8vo,  *3  oo 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Mitchell,  C.  A.    Edible  Fats  and  Oils.  *3  oo 

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Simms,  F.  W.     The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Leveling 8vo,  2  50 

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Simpson,  G.     The  Naval  Constructor I2mo,  mor.,  *5  oo 

Sinclair,  A.     Development  of  the  Locomotive  Engine. 

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Sindall,  R.  W.     Manufacture  of  Paper.     (Westminster  Series.) 

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Sloane,  T.  O'C.     Elementary  Electrical  Calculations 12010,  *2  oo 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.    Handbook  of  Testing.    Vol.  I.    Materials. .  *2  50 
Smith,  C.  A.  M.,  and  Warren,  A.  G.    New  Steam  Tables. 8vo, 

Smith,  C.  F.     Practical  Alternating  Currents  and  Testing.  .8vo,  *2  50 

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Smith,  F.  E.     Handbook  of  General  Instruction  for  Mechanics. 

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Smith,  J.  C.     Manufacture  of  Paint 8vo,  *3  oo 

Smith,  R.  H.    Principles  of  Machine  Work 12010,  *3  oo 

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Smith,  W.     Chemistry  of  Hat  Manufacturing i2mo,  *3  oo 

Snell,  A.  T.     Electric  Motive  Power. 8vo,  *4  oo 

Snow,  W.  G.     Pocketbook  of  Steam  Heating  and  Ventilation . .  (In  Press.) 
Snow,  W.  G.,  and  Nolan,  T.     Ventilation  of  Buildings.     (Science 

Series  No.  5.) i6mo,  o  50 

Soddy,  F.     Radioactivity 8vo,  *3  oo 

Solomon,  M.     Electric  Lamps.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sothern,  J.  W.     The  Marine  Steam  Turbine 8vo,  *5  oo 

Soxhlet,  D.  H.     Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Spang,  H.  W.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Lightning  Protection. 

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34     D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT -TITLK  CATALOG 

Spangenburg,  L.  Fatigue  of  Metals.  Translated  by  S.  H. 

Shreve.  (Science  Series  No.  23.) i6mo,  o  50  « 

Specht,  G.  J.,'Hardy,  A.  S.,  McMaster,  J.  B.,  and  Walling.  Topo- 
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Speyers,  C.  L.     Text-book  of  Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  25 

Stahl,  A.  W.  Transmission  of  Power.  (Science  Series  No.  28.) 

i6mo, 

Stahl,  A.  W.,  and  Woods,  A.  T.     Elementary  Mechanism    .i2mo,  *2  oo 

Staley,  C.,  and  Pierson,  G.  S.  The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage. 

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Standage,  H.  C.     Leatherworkers'  Manual 8vo,  *3  50 

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Stansbie,  J.  H.     Iron  and  Steel.     (Westminster  Series. )..      8vo,  *2  oo 
Steinman,  D.  B.     Suspension  Bridges  and  Cantilevers.    (Science 

Series  No.  127.) o  50 

Stevens,  H.  P.     Paper  Mill  Chemist i6mo,  *2  50 

Stevenson,  J.  L.     Blast-Furnace  Calculations.  .  .  .i2mo,  leather,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  A.     Modern  Polyphase  Machinery i2mo,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  G.     Modern  Steam  Traps I2mo,  *i   25 

Stiles,  A.     Tables  for  Field  Engineers i2mo,  i  oo 

Stillman,  P.     Steam-engine  Indicator i2mo,  i  oo 

Stodola,  A.     Steam   Turbines.     Trans,  by  L.  C.  Loewenstein. 

gvo,  *5  oo 

Stone,  H.     The  Timbers  of  Commerce 8vo,  3  50 

Stone,  Gen.  R.     New  Roads  and  Road  Laws i2mo,  i  oo 

Stopes,  M.     Ancient  Plants 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Sudborough,  J.  J.,  and  James,  T.  C.     Practical  Organic  Chem- 
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Suffling,  E.  R.  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting 8vo,  *3  50 

Swan,  K.  Patents,  Designs  and  Trade  Marks.  (Westminster 

Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sweet,  S.  H.  Special  Report  on  Coal 8vo,  3  oo 

Swinburne,  J>,  Wordingham,  C.  H.,  and  Martin,  T.  C  Electric 

Currents.  (Science  Series  No.  109.) i6mo,  o  50 

Swoope,  C.  W.  Practical  Lessons  in  Electricity. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Talifer,  L.     Bleaching  Linen  and  Cotton  Yarn  and  Fabrics. 8vo,  *5  oo 


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Tate,  J.  S.     Surcharged  and  Different  Forms  of  Retaining-walls. 

Science  Series  No.  7. .  . i6mo, 

Templeton,  W.     Practical  Mechanic's  Workshop  Companion. 

i2mo,  mor.,  2  oo 
Terry,  H.  L.     India  Rubber  and  its  Manufacture.     (Westminster 

Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Thayer,  H.  R.     Structural  Design (In  Press.) 

Thiess,  J.  B.,  and  Joy,  G.  A.     Toll  Telephone  Practice .  .  (In  Preparation.) 
Thom,  C.,  and  Jones,  W.  H.     Telegraphic  Connections. 

oblong  i2mo  i  50 

Thomas,  C.  W.     Paper-makers'  Handbook (In  Press.) 

Thompson,  A.  B.     Oil  Fields  of  Russia 4to,  *7  50 

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Thompson,  E.  P.     How  to  Make  Inventions 8vo,  o  50 

Thompson,  S.  P.     Dynamo  Electric  Machines.     (Science  Series 

No.  75.) i6mo,  o  50 

Thompson,  W.  P.     Handbook  of  Patent  Law  of  All  Countries 

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Thornley,  T.     Cotton  Combing  Machines 8vo,  *3  oo 

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First  Year *i  50 

Second  Year *2  50 

Third  Year *2  50 

Thurso,  J.  W.     Modern  Turbine  Practice 8vo,  *4  oo 

Tidy,  C.  Meymott.   "Treatment  of  Sewage.     (Science  Series  No. 

94.) i6mo,  o  50 

Tinney,  W.  H.     Gold-mining  Machinery 8vo,  *3  oo 

Titherley,  A.  W.    Laboratory  Course  of  Organic  Chemistry  .  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Toch,  M.     Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints 8vo,  *3  oo 

Materials  for  Permanent  Painting 12010,  *2  oo 

Todd,  J.,  and  Whall,  W.  B.     Practical  Seamanship  ......  .8vo,  *7  50 

Tonge,  J.     Coal.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Townsend,  F.     Alternating  Current  Engineering.. .  .8vo,  boards,  *o  75 

Townsend,  J.     lonization  of  Gases  by  Collision 8vo,  *i  % 

Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers. 

8vo, 

Vol.    I.     1908 *6  oo 

Vol.  II.     1909 *6  oo 

Vol.  III.   1910 *6  oo 


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Traverse  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  115.) i6mo,  o  50 

mor.,  i  oo 
Trinks,    W.,    and   Housum,    C.      Shaft    Governors.     (Science 

Series  No.  122.) i6mo,  o  50 

Trowbridge,  W.  P.     Turbine  Wheels.     (Science  Series  No.  44.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Tucker,  J.  H.     A  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis 8vo,  3  50 

Tumlirz,  O.     Potential.     Trans,  by  D.  Robertson ....  i2mo,  i  25 

Tunner,   P.   A.     Treatise   on   Roll-turning.     Trans,   by  J.   B. 

Pearse 8vo  text  and  folio  atlas,  10  oo 

Turbayne,  A.  A.     Alphabets  and  Numerals 4to,  2  oo 

Turnbull,  Jr.,  J.,  and  Robinson,  S.  W.     A  Treatise  on  the  Com- 
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Turrill,  S.  M.     Elementary  Course  in  Perspective i2mo,  *i  25 

Underbill,  C.  R.     Solenoids,  Electromagnets  and  Electromag- 
netic Windings I2mo,  *2  oo 

Urquhart,  J.  W.     Electric  Light  Fitting i2mo,  2  oo 

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Universal  Telegraph  Cipher  Code i2mo,  i  oo 

Vacher,  F.     Food  Inspector's  Handbook i2mo,  *2  50 

Van  Nostrand's  Chemical  Annual.     Second  issue  1909  ....  i2mo,  *2  50 

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Van  Wagenen,  T.  F.  Manual  cf  Hydraulic  Mining itfmo,  i  oo 

Vega,  Baron,  Von  Logarithmic  Tables 8vo,  half  mor.,  2  50 

Villon,  A.  M.  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Leather  Industry. 

Trans,  by  F.  T.  Addyman 8vo,  *io  oo 

Vincent,  C.  Ammonia  and  its  Compounds.  Trans,  by  M.  J. 

Salter 8vo,  *2  oo 

Volk,  C.  Haulage  and  Winding  Appliances 8vo,  *4  oo 

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Vose,  G.  L.     Graphic   Method    for   Solving  Certain   Questions 

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Wabner,  R.     Ventilation  in  Mines.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter.  .  .8vo,  *4  50 

Wade,  E.  J.     Secondary  Batteries 8vo,  *4  oo 

Wadsworth,  C.     Primary  Battery  Ignition i2mo  (In  Press.) 

Wagner,  E.     Preserving  Fruits,  Vegetables,  and  Meat. . . .  i2mo,  *2  50 

Walker,  F.    Aerial  Navigation 8vo,  2  oo 

—  Dynamo  Building.     (Science  Series  No.  98.) i6mo,  o  50 

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Walker,  S.  F.     Steam  Boilers,  Engines  and  Turbines 8vo,  3  oo 

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Walker,  W.  H.     Screw  Propulsion ' 8vo,  o  75 

Wallis-Tayler,  A.  J.     Bearings  and  Lubrication... 8vo,  *i  50 

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Wanklyn,  J.  A.     Water  Analysis i2mo,  2  oo 

Wansbrough,  W.  D.     The  A  B  C  of  the  Differential  Calculus 

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Ward,  J.  H.     Steam  for  the  Million 8vo,  i  oo 

Waring,  Jr.,  G.  E.     Sanitary  Conditions.     (Science  Series  No.  31.) 

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Warren,  F.  D.     Handbook  on  Reinforced  Concrete i2mo,  *2  50 

Watkins,  A.     Photography,     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Watson,  E.  P.     Small  Engines  and  Boilers i2ino,  i  25 

Watt,  A.     Electro-plating  and  Electro-refining  of  Metals *4  5° 

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Leather  Manufacture 8vo,  *4  oo 

Weale,  J.     Dictionary  of  Terms  used  in  Architecture i2mo,  2  50 

Weale's  Scientific  and  Technical  Series.     (Complete  list  sent  on 

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Weather  and  Weather  Instruments 1 2mo,  i  oo 

paper,  o  50 

Webb,  H.   L.     Guide  to  the  Testing  of  Insulated  Wires  and 

Cables 1 2mo,  i  oo 

Webber,  W.  H.  Y.     Town  Gas.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Weisbach,  J.     A  Manual  of  Theoretical  Mechanics 8vo,  *6  oo 

sheep, 

Weisbach,  J.,  and  Herrmann,  G.     Mechanics  of  Air  Machinery 

8vo,  *3  75 

Weston,  E.  B.     Loss  of  Head  Due  to  Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes 

i2mo,  *i  50 

Weymouth,    F.    M.      Drum    Armatures    and    Commutators. 

8vo,  *3  oo 

Wheatley,  O.     Ornamental  Cement  Work (In  Press.) 

Wheeler,  J.  B.     Art  of  War i2mo,  175 

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Whipple,  S.     An  Elementary  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Bridge 

Building 8vo,  3  oo 

Whithard,  P.     Illuminating  and  Missal  Painting iimo,  i  50 

Wilcox,  R.  M.     Cantilever  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  25.) 

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Wilkinson,  H.   D.     Submarine  Cable   Laying    and  Repairing. 

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